I'm really not doing business

Chapter 772: Merchants from the West may steal my money!

Legashi told the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty about the Western colonial experience at the top of his voice, and he really hoped that the Ming Dynasty would listen. However, the Ming Dynasty was arrogant and thought that it would not fall into that pit.

But the fact is, Daming also fell into that pit, but fortunately he was strong enough to stand up and move forward.

Don't worry too much about the feelings of the colonized, because the Ming people don't understand the barbarians, and they can't understand them.

The people of the Ming Dynasty had no way of empathizing with the colonized people, especially after they drove out the barbarians and rebuilt China from the ruins. They were extremely proud, and pity and benevolence would only cause unnecessary trouble.

The biggest characteristic of the colonists is that if they don't listen, you just have to beat them up. As long as they don't want to die, they will naturally figure it out. This is the biggest characteristic of the colonized. They are very good at reconciling with themselves, because those who are not good at it are dead.

This is the case throughout Luzon. Those who survived only left behind the experience of how to survive.

Spain sailed across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and established the Philippine Colonial Governorate in Luzon. After such a long journey of colonization, it must have gained some valuable experience.

There are some experiences that the Ming Dynasty can still absorb from its long history and horizontal vision, but there are some things that the current world has no answers to at all.

No one has ever been able to solve the money shortage problem that Wang Guoguang and Zhang Xueyan want to solve.

Wang Guoguang said solemnly: "Your Majesty, the essence of the money shortage is the contradiction between the vigorous productivity of the Ming Dynasty and the insufficient amount of silver and copper. No matter how much silver is added, it will not satisfy the appetite of the Ming Dynasty."

"Even though the Ming Dynasty is now a bummer, with only money coming in but no money going out, the monetary system will not be able to support the Ming Dynasty in the coming years."

Taotie has a big appetite, while Pixiu only takes in money and never gives out. The Ming Dynasty used capital gains tax to strictly control the outflow of silver and copper coins, but there was still a shortage of money.

The more silver flowed in and the more developed industry and commerce became, the larger the silver gap became. This strange phenomenon of the more silver there was, the less silver there was forced the Ming Dynasty to find its own way - the banknote system.

The total size of the Western economy is not very large, which is determined by the population. For the Western world, the overseas income of 6 million taels of silver a year is enough to revitalize the entire Western world. Even with soaring prices, it needs the Ming Dynasty as a flood diversion area.

But for the Ming Dynasty, the annual inflow of 10 million silver coins from overseas was of no help.

The Ming Dynasty was simply too big, its population was too large, its labor force was too abundant, and it needed too much silver and goods.

"So you're just telling a golden myth?" Zhu Yijun still shook his head firmly and said, "I will not deceive the people of the Ming Dynasty. I can't do that. When I entered the Institute of Gewu, there was a passage on the stone. It was my message to the Institute of Gewu. Those who practice it are just faithful."

Wang Guoguang continued, "Your Majesty, this is not a lie, or rather, we can say it is credit, paper money is credit currency."

"Can what scholars do be considered stealing? It's stealing or borrowing! Changing the definition doesn't change the essence. It's still cheating or stealing." Zhu Yijun thought for a moment and said, "Starting next year, we must collect and store gold. We must publicize the amount of gold reserves in the treasury and the national treasury every year. In addition, the cabinet will audit the gold receipts and expenditures."

"When Shang Yang carried out reforms, he also moved trees to establish trust. If you want to tell a golden story, tell it well and truthfully. After fooling the people for a long time, they will believe it themselves."

Zhu Yijun gave a very clear instruction: collecting gold is of course possible, the Ming Dynasty's trade surplus is still expanding, and if it continues to expand, within a few years, if gold is not collected, the West will not have enough precious metals to pay for goods;
There is nothing wrong with telling stories about gold and issuing banknotes. The Ming Dynasty court has no credibility, but the Ming Emperor has credibility, and Zhu Yijun can endorse the court.

But this story must be told well so that the people of the Ming Dynasty can truly know how much gold the emperor has.

The disclosure of gold reserves is the cornerstone of all credit currency. Gold cannot be directly exchanged for silver, but gold can be exchanged for silver to exchange for treasure notes. Gold is the greatest confidence in treasure notes. This is the idea of ​​the Ministry of Revenue.

In fact, it is still a dual standard of silver and copper, and gold is a measure.

The Ming Dynasty could not tell the story of silver, because everyone knew that the court did not have that much silver, and any silver it had would be spent on building official factories, highways, plantations, etc.

But gold is not circulated and cannot be circulated because it is too valuable.

Zhang Xueyan said with a worried look on his face: "Your Majesty, in recent years, silver has been flowing out of the West, and the price of gold has been rising; silver has been flowing into the Ming Dynasty, and the price of gold has been falling; some Western merchants have come up with this idea, exchanging silver for gold in the Ming Dynasty, and exchanging gold for silver in the West, making money by trading back and forth."

“It seems that you can make more money by directly trading in currency, rather than goods.”

"That is to say, the profits of Ming cargo are still very lucrative now, so there is no need for Western merchants to switch profits like this. In a few years, the amount of Ming cargo shipped overseas will increase, and the profits of cargo will decrease. Western merchants will definitely do this."

Zhang Xueyan is down-to-earth. As for issuing Baochao, it is unknown when this will happen. Even after his death, the Ming Dynasty may still not issue Baochao.

The policy of hoarding gold in the 15th year of Wanli was actually to take advantage of the good financial situation and rely on your Majesty's favor to restore the credibility of the court. This was the main purpose of hoarding gold. Issuing treasure notes was a bit far-fetched.

Another main purpose of collecting gold from the 15th year of Wanli was to prevent arbitrage by Western merchants.

"Your Majesty, this is an idle circulation of money without any goods, which is not conducive to the production of the Ming Dynasty." As the Minister of Finance, Wang Guoguang had to explain the dangers clearly.

"I understand. What you two dear ministers mean is that merchants from the West may steal my money!" Zhu Yijun asked with a frown. He was trying very seriously to understand the words of the two ministers. After thinking about it, he got this answer.

Wang Guoguang and Zhang Xueyan looked at each other and immediately bowed their heads and said, "Your Majesty is wise!"

Your Majesty's understanding is always a little strange, but very reasonable.

The Ministry of Revenue was mainly on guard against the possibility that Philip II suddenly came up with an idea and used a large amount of gold to exchange for silver in the Ming Dynasty, and then traded it to the West for silver, making money in this way and affecting the Ming Dynasty's transformation from a small peasant economy to a commodity economy.

This will lead to a decrease in external demand, which will be a catastrophe for workshops that rely mainly on foreign trade. If the supply of external demand is entirely transferred to internal supply, problems will also arise, mainly causing deflation.

The shift from external supply to internal supply will lead to vicious competition among workshops, declining profits, reduced labor remuneration for handicraft workshops, insufficient domestic demand, workshop closures, and unemployment, which will lead to a greater reduction in demand. It is really difficult to get out of the vicious cycle of money shortage and deflation.

The flow of gold and silver between the Ming Dynasty and the West is a phenomenon that seems very complicated, is very complicated to talk about, and is very difficult to understand. The most corresponding real-life example is the rice-mulberry merger in the heartland of the Ming Dynasty and the rice-tobacco merger that the Luzon Governor-General is now promoting.

The gentry of the Ming Dynasty are harvesting the poor coolies, the Governor-General of Luzon is harvesting the foreign landlords, and the merchants from the West may harvest the Ming Dynasty.

And His Majesty the Emperor simply understood it as: stealing my money!

Just like Li Kaifang’s conditional probability formula, it is difficult to understand, but when Your Majesty used it in tax inspection, everyone immediately understood it!

This could indeed leave a loophole for Western merchants to take advantage of the interest rate difference between gold and silver and steal the Emperor's money.

Your Majesty is the largest holder of gold and silver in the Ming Dynasty. Those silvers have been invested and just changed their forms to stay with Your Majesty. If this kind of idle rotation occurs, those assets will definitely depreciate. Yes, it is indeed stealing Your Majesty's money.

The officials of the Ming Dynasty allowed this phenomenon to occur, which was incompetence.

"Your Majesty, after the new year, some people in the court are expected to say that the Prime Minister is too hasty in his request and is punishing officials with harsh punishments." Wang Guoguang said with some concern: "They are stirring up this public opinion, not asking Your Majesty to revoke your order."

Zhang Juzheng's methods of governing officials were very ruthless. He repeatedly put pressure on the performance evaluation system and continued to exert pressure. He pointed out four typical characteristics of officials who were in office but did nothing: they had nothing in their stomachs and were afraid of being discovered; they pretended to be bland and muddled along; they were full of bad intentions and waited for you to make mistakes; they were absolutely loyal and had a deep understanding;

In response to these four typical characteristics, Zhang Juzheng carried out rectification of official administration and government policies.

After the policy was formulated, there was really wailing, and the Ming Emperor himself felt a little anxious and pleaded with the bureaucrats, but in the end he was persuaded by Zhang Juzheng and the policy was successfully passed by the court.

"Isn't it to make me withdraw my order? Why are they submitting this memorial?" Zhu Yijun tapped his fingers on the table and said, "Oh, I understand. They are stirring up this public opinion just to make the bureaucrats reach a consensus. My attitude is not important. What is important is the thoughts of the majority of bureaucrats."

"Are you going to use the principle of slow progress and tolerance to deal with the prime minister's decree? Very interesting."

Zhu Yijun immediately understood the intentions of these people. He criticized them for being too hasty in making demands and forcing officials with harsh punishments, which created a trend of public opinion that "things will be resolved if they are slowed down, and tolerance will serve the country", and then used the idea of ​​"things will be resolved if they are slowed down" to deal with government orders.

Things will be smoothed over if they are taken slowly. This does not mean that he should openly oppose Zhang Juzheng, but rather he should mourn and portray himself as extremely miserable, putting himself in the position of a victim. He does not explicitly oppose the government orders, but does not resolutely implement them either. He mainly delays the process, and by doing so he eventually wears out the court's morale.

Like Taizhou prefect Li Hongdao, those who dared to openly resist government orders must be a minority.

If things go slowly, they will be resolved, which is the majority. This is also the most effective way in the game between the power of ministers and the power of the monarch, besides doubling the power.

The Ming bureaucrats did not dare to double-check the crime, because His Majesty had already identified it as treason. If they doubled the crime and doubled the enforcement of the government orders, the emperor would really kill the whole family. His Majesty was notorious for the four major crimes and he never showed mercy when killing people.

Things will be better if you take it slow. That means if you wear down everyone's enthusiasm and drag it out for a few years, the views of everyone from top to bottom on this issue will change. By that time, whether the thing is done or not will become insignificant.

If it is done, it means the emperor is virtuous; if it is not done, it means it is God's will.

The invisible big hand and the evil of human nature made a mess of things. At that time, His Majesty the Emperor was not guilty, and neither were his ministers. It was all God's fault, the invisible big hand was at fault, and the evil human nature was at fault.

Specific to the government policies, for example, returning farmland to Zhejiang.

If Shen Shixing refused to carry out the plan, he could also slow down the process. For Shen Shixing, if he succeeded, the credit would go to the cabinet minister who had drawn up the plan, and he would offend the powerful and wealthy people in Zhejiang, and the scholars and officials from the Southern Court of Zhejiang. If he failed, the losers would be the people of the Ming Dynasty, His Majesty and the current Prime Minister Zhang Juzheng, but not Shen Shixing himself.

It is a well-known fact that returning farmland to the land is difficult and faces huge resistance. This is the will of heaven and the invisible hand that cannot be defied.

Shen Shixing only needed to defend Songjiang Prefecture as his base camp. Opening up Songjiang Prefecture to the sea was his main responsibility. The problems in Zhejiang were the political burden left by the previous governor, Wu Shanyan. Neither the court nor the emperor could blame Shen Shixing for not working hard.

Shen Shixing just had to delay until Hou Yuzhao took office as the new official, and then throw the mess of returning the land to Hou Yuzhao to worry about.

It was impossible for Hou Yuzhao to return the land. He was a new official and needed the approval of all the officials below him. Even Shen Shixing, the emperor's senior brother, had difficulties in doing so, let alone Hou Yuzhao.

If this drags on, the imperial court will re-examine the difficulty of returning the land, and the matter will most likely end up in nothing.

This is the principle of "slow progress leads to success". If things are dragged on, the proposer will give up, and those who oppose it will no longer have the energy to continue opposing. Everyone will muddle through and submit a memorial to His Majesty, saying that it is a rare opportunity to be confused. And the matter will just pass like that.

For thousands of years, this has been the most effective means of struggle for bureaucrats besides domination. "What are you going to do, sir?" Zhu Yijun was somewhat curious about how Zhang Juzheng would deal with this problem.

Wang Guoguang whispered: "The Prime Minister intends to take drastic measures. If a scholar is noble, he will be noble; if a scholar is humble, he will be humble. If a crime is hidden, it will be punished if it is exposed."

These sixteen meanings are: a scholar's nobility comes from his self-respect, and a scholar's lowliness comes from his self-deprecation; if one despises himself, he is no longer a scholar. When the sin is hidden, it is difficult to target him, but when the sin is already obvious, he must be punished with death.

"When I was discussing this in court before, I hoped that too much pressure would not be put on the bureaucrats, which would cause trouble for you in governing the officials. I will issue a decree to the cabinet to let you give more freedom." Zhu Yijun understood why Wang Guoguang said this.

Your Majesty does not particularly agree with putting pressure on others, so it is not convenient for Zhang Juzheng, and Wang Chonggu has no motive. If Wan Shihe were in the court, he would have come to mediate long ago.

It's not that Shen Li is incompetent, he's just not proficient in the business. When Wan Shihe first became the Grand Master of the Imperial Clan, he had to be scolded by the emperor, a child, all day long.

Zhu Yijun emphasized again: "Since it has been passed by the court, it means that a general consensus has been reached. I will not easily overturn the court's decision. In terms of my attitude on this matter, my meaning is very clear. I support you in governing officials."

"Your Majesty is wise." Wang Guoguang breathed a sigh of relief. His Majesty has shown great political talent in the past fifteen years. This is a fortunate thing. The bureaucrats cannot fool the emperor. His Majesty knows that there is nothing good about them before the bureaucrats even start to behave.

"We will take our leave." Wang Guoguang and Zhang Xueyan bowed their heads and took their leave.

"Let's go to your house for lunch at noon today." Zhu Yijun planned to have a chat with Zhang Juzheng in person to prevent Zhang Juzheng from being unable to take action because of the fear of the emperor's displeasure.

Zhu Yijun's carriage was majestic and when the people saw it stopped in front of the Quan Chu Guild Hall, they knew that the active Majesty had come to the master's house for a meal again, which was a sign of the emperor's great grace.

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The Emperor of the Ming Dynasty entered the Wenchang Pavilion and looked at the slightly messy study. He only thought of eight words: serve the country with all his heart and soul until his death.

Zhang Juzheng also wanted to build five large tiled houses of his own. In fact, his expectations for the Wanli Reform were not high. After the implementation of the Performance Evaluation System, the Land Survey and Returning of Land, and the Single Whip System, Zhang Juzheng built his five large tiled houses.

Make Ming Dynasty great again, that is the tall building that Your Majesty wants to build.

Zhang Juzheng could have just pretended to be a confused advisor and fooled the crowd, but judging from the messy study and the various official documents, he had no intention of stopping.

Zhu Yijun sat in a soft rattan rocking chair and explained his purpose, and Zhang Juzheng also explained his ideas.

"It turned out that it was the Guangling County purge that made you want to continue to exert pressure." Zhu Yijun then realized that it was Zhou Liangyin's successful purge that made Zhang Juzheng see that the administration of the Ming Dynasty was not so prosperous.

Zhang Juzheng sighed and said, "What happened in Guangling County is truly a shame."

At the end of the 13th year of the Wanli reign, the Ministry of Revenue audited the accounts of Guangling County and found problems: the tax burden did not match and some taxes were underpaid.

The Ministry of Revenue did not discover it when it was checking revenue and expenditure, the Provincial Government did not discover it, Xuanfu did not discover it, and even the magistrate of Guangling County did not discover it. The problem was not discovered until the Ministry of Revenue conducted an audit.

After tracing the responsibility layer by layer, they found out where the problem occurred. The land tax had been collected, but before it reached the county government's warehouse, someone had embezzled it.

Before the purge, there were twelve clerks in the Household Affairs Office of Guangling County, but only four of them were on duty. Among these four, three were relatives of the Jin Party, and only one was really working. His name was Lu Anping.

Lu Anping collected taxes according to the land register completed after the land survey in the ninth year of Wanli. Every summer and autumn when the taxes were collected, he would take the yamen runners out of the city to collect taxes.

After he received the tax, he found the land register in the hands of the magistrate of Guangling County, which seemed to be an old register. Lu Anping made his own decision and kept the extra tax from the land survey for himself.

The magistrate of Guangling collected the old taxes in this way for three years, and the county government, prefectural government, provincial government, and ministry of revenue also collected the same taxes in this way for three years.

When the sword of elimination was chopped down, the magistrate of Guangling was dismissed, and the three clerks who did not show up for work or did not work were all dismissed. However, Lu Anping, who was "embezzling huge amounts of money", landed safely because he had been in contact with most of the village heads and grain chiefs for a long time.

Lu Anping did not take all the taxes withheld from him, but distributed them to others. The tax collectors, the village headmen, and the grain managers all took most of the money. The total amount of silver left in Lu Anping's pocket in three years was less than twenty taels.

Lu Anping's "rebate" is to collect taxes in a more peaceful manner. It would be a shame to have armed resistance to taxation and fighting.

If Lu Anping really wanted to take the yamen runners to collect taxes, and he pushed them too hard, he might be beaten to death.

"It's really a makeshift team." Zhu Yijun was filled with emotion after listening to what happened in Guangling County. The world was indeed a bit sloppy. Even something as rigorous as taxation took Lu Anping three years to discover.

Zhang Juzheng sighed and said, "In fact, the Ministry of Revenue is not so concerned about agricultural taxes because of the increase in commercial taxes. The Ministry of Revenue thought that Guangling County did not receive the taxes, so it regarded them as tax arrears and would collect them when the arrears were large enough. "

"The Shanxi Provincial Government is in Taiyuan, and Guangling County is outside Yanmen Pass. The summer and autumn taxes are shipped directly to Beijing, but the Shanxi Provincial Government naturally does not interfere much. The government office just muddles things up and directly pays the taxes after seeing that Guangling County Magistrate reported no problems."

"The magistrate of Guangling County was confused and didn't even know how much tax he should collect."

The basic political structure of the Ming Dynasty was fragmented. There was no problem with Guangling County's report, and Xuanfu did not review it at all and submitted it directly.

But it was indeed a makeshift team, because it was not just Guangling County. Zhang Juzheng simply looked at the tax arrears accounts audited by the Ministry of Revenue and found that at least 20 to 30 counties did the same thing.

"What about Lu Anping? Is he still working as a clerk in the Household Department?" Zhu Yijun was somewhat curious about how this capable clerk had managed to escape the sword of elimination.

Zhang Juzheng smiled and said, "Now Lu Anping is the chief accountant. As for the taxes, let him keep 20% and distribute it to others."

"Keep 20%?" Zhu Yijun sat up straight.

Zhang Juzheng explained: "It is to maintain local stability. The word 'official' has two meanings. Lu Anping, the tax collector, the grain chief, and the village head are all officials in the eyes of the court, but they are officials to the people. If the officials are not well fed, they will not work hard."

"It also prevents them from making up excuses, taking advantage of loopholes to make money, and exacerbating conflicts between officials and the people."

"Two percent of the land tax is not a lot, but people are greedy and want to swallow an elephant. I'm afraid two percent won't be enough to satisfy them and they will continue to exploit them." Zhu Yijun said with some concern.

Twenty percent of the land tax is really not too much. If the 20 percent of the land tax is used in exchange for the cruel officials to stop collecting taxes, and the problem can be solved, it is really not a loss.

The main components of Ming Dynasty's taxation now are the revenue of government factories, the profits of coal, iron and tobacco monopolies, the commission of currency exchange and customs duties. These are collectively referred to as commercial taxes. In the 1890th year of Wanli, the commercial taxes were as high as 54 million silver coins, accounting for % of Ming Dynasty's fiscal revenue. The proportion of agricultural taxes has been declining year by year.

The most noteworthy thing here is the tobacco monopoly. The Ministry of Revenue originally estimated only 200,000 silver coins, but in the end the profit submitted exceeded 300,000 silver coins. The official woolen factory was still losing money in the first year, and only broke even in the second year. In the third year, the profit submitted was less than 20,000 silver coins.

Within ten years, the income from tobacco monopoly can really cover the military expenditure.

In other words, the imperial court is rich now and doesn't care about this, otherwise Lu Anping would still have to be urged to pay the rebate tax.

"Your Majesty, the people in the two prefectures outside the mountains, Datong Prefecture and Xuan Prefecture, are a bit fierce. Lu Anping took a risk when he first started. Otherwise, the yamen runners who went to the countryside to collect taxes would not have an easy life. If they caused civil unrest, Guangling County would be in trouble." Zhang Juzheng was not particularly worried about this.

If it were possible, Lu Anping would have put the money in his own pocket long ago, and he could also get a "rebate"? It was all forced by the tough customs of the people. This was also a consensus formed after the game between officials and the people, but it was legalized in the form of retention in the tax law.

Every county in the Ming Dynasty has its own conditions, different development situations, and different tax laws. Not every county government in the Ming Dynasty is cut from the same mold, and government orders must be adapted to local conditions and take into account regional development differences.

Zhu Yijun rocked in the rocking chair and said with a smile, "That's true."

"Sir, it's almost the fifteenth year of Wanli." Zhu Yijun looked out the window and said a little absent-mindedly.

The 15th year of Wanli was the critical point when the Ming Dynasty was completely heading towards decline. All of Zhang Juzheng's new policies were completely abolished in this year. The Ming Dynasty slid into the abyss and could no longer be stopped.

"I am stupid." Zhang Juzheng said, not quite understanding. "It snowed heavily the day before yesterday. The snow covered the entire area north of the Huai River. There will be no locust plague or drought next year. I think next year will still be a prosperous year."

Zhang Juzheng saw nothing to worry about.

In the Korean battlefield, Qi Jiguang firmly grasped the initiative, suppressing the Japanese pirates to gain experience for the elite soldiers of the Beijing camp; Li Chengliang did not rely on his own troops, and opened up nearly 500,000 acres of farmland in Liaodong; some sandy lands in Suiyuan were restored to their ecology, and there was no more flying sand and rocks;

Wool production was rising again, plans were being made to build a road to Womagang, and the Seven Guards of Guanxi were being restored in an orderly manner;
Yunnan is preparing to build a road to Laos, and Jingjue salt is an important additive to water and fertilizer; Ming Dynasty's maritime development is still in full swing, and even the system of the Governor's Office is being improved.

Zhang Juzheng believed that the 15th year of Wanli would still be a year of rapid development.

"Nothing. I just feel that time flies by so quickly. In the blink of an eye, I have been on the throne for fifteen years. Looking back on these fifteen years, I have a clear conscience." Zhu Yijun stretched lazily, still staring blankly out the window.

"Your Majesty is wise." Zhang Juzheng bowed his head again. He looked for a while and found that His Majesty was really just in a daze, so he sat down and continued to deal with the documents in his hands.

Zhu Yijun was indeed in a daze. He was watching Wang Yaozhuo, Zhu Changzhi and Zhu Xuanshu making a snowman under a Chinese poplar tree. Zhu Changzhi was wearing a dog-skin hat and his face was red from the cold. As they made the snowmen, no one knew who started it, but they started a snowball fight.

When Wang Yaozhuo's scolding voice sounded, Zhu Yijun smiled.

After coming out of the Quan Chu Guild Hall, the Ming Emperor started to go to the North Camp to comfort the soldiers and the families of the soldiers who died on the front line. Zhu Yijun visited the families and asked about the difficulties in their lives. After leaving the military camp, Zhu Yijun went to the Ten Kings City and met the princes who had moved to the capital.

At dusk, he met with the chief academic officer and the principal of the Royal Institute of Technology.

After returning to Tonghe Palace, Zhu Yijun did not rest either. He called Prince Lu Zhu Yiliu and scolded him severely. The beauties from all over the world in Prince Lu's Mansion had caused some trouble. This year, a Persian beauty who was sent to Prince Lu's Mansion was frozen to death. It was not Zhu Yiliu who killed her, as he was not that cruel. It was Zhu Yiliu who fought in the palace and cut off the beauty's coal supply.

Zhu Yijun scolded him mainly because he was worried that Zhu Yiliu might be in danger.

"Your Majesty, here is the military report from General Qi." Feng Bao placed a newspaper on the table.

Toyotomi Hashiba retreated from Chungju to Busan with 30,000 men, and Duntai Yuanhou heard that Toyotomi Hashiba was likely to move to his homeland.

(End of this chapter)