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Chapter 44 Manifesto of the French Bourgeois Revolution

Chapter 43 Manifesto of the French Bourgeois Revolution: Philosophical Letters

Voltaire's "Philosophical Letters" has been secretly reprinted in France. When it was published in the Netherlands, it was reprinted in 1 year
0 times,
It became the basic enlightenment reading for progressive youth in France at that time, and a powerful ideological weapon for the bourgeoisie to oppose feudal autocracy at that time.

Its advent not only marked the maturity of Voltaire's political and philosophical thoughts, but also marked the massive Enlightenment propaganda.

The official start of the movement.Therefore, the famous modern French philosopher and historian Gustave Ranson called "Philosophical Letters"
It is "the first bomb dropped on the old system".

Book "Philosophical Letters" Revolutionary Theory Forerunner

Voltaire (1694-1778) was the leader of the French Enlightenment in the 18th century, a famous philosopher and political thinker, and his original

The name is François Marie Arrouet, and Voltaire is a pseudonym.Voltaire was forced into exile in England from 1726 to 1729, which

During this period, he inspected the British political system, studied Locke's materialist empiricism and Newton's natural science, and shared his knowledge
The experience was written into an immortal masterpiece "Philosophical Correspondence" (also known as "British Correspondence"), which was published in 1733.Citation of this book

It aroused the fear of the French rulers. In June 1734, the book was approved by the French Supreme Court as advocating freedom of belief, religious and social
The charge of causing grievous injury to order was sentenced to be burned.Under these circumstances, Voltaire had to leave his country again

, took refuge in the Netherlands. Voltaire returned to France in 1778 and died in Paris in May of the same year.Voltaire's Works
Mainly include: "Philosophical Correspondence", "Treatise on Metaphysics", "Dictionary of Philosophy", "The Chronicle of Louis XIV", "The Orleans

"Virgin" etc.

In the history of human thought, there are not many books that introduce philosophical thoughts in the form of letters, but Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters
"is one of the very representative books.There are 25 letters in this book.Religious beliefs in England are discussed separately, and

Introduces the British parliamentary system and political structure, praises British commercial achievements, comments on British philosophers and scientists, and narrates
Views on English literature and so on.In this work, Voltaire introduced the English

Materialism thought, British political system, at the same time, he also clarified his own philosophical views and his own political views.

Voltaire admired Newton's thoughts very much. During his stay in England, he collected and read a large number of Newton's works.

In the process of reading Newton's works, I often have many feelings. It is in the process of reading Newton that his thoughts have undergone tremendous changes.

His worldview was heavily influenced by Newton.In "Philosophical Letters", Voltaire spends a lot of space introducing Newton's ideas.

At the same time, he also expressed his own world view: the universe is a huge machine.Voltaire was the first to be popularized in France
Propaganda of Newton's ideas.He clearly stated in this book: We are all students of Newton; I thank him for discovering and
Confirm the true system of the universe.According to Voltaire, Newton proved that the universe is a huge machine with the law of gravitation.if

It takes a good machinist to make a good machine, so the wonderful machine of the universe needs a good machinist

to manufacture it.This mechanic is God.God created the universe, made the laws of the universe, and gave the universe
Take the first impetus.God commands once and the universe obeys forever.Hence it no longer interferes in the affairs of the universe.

As a materialist philosopher, Voltaire brought God out to demonstrate the characteristics of the universe. In this regard, Voltaire and many unique philosophers at that time
Like the materialist philosophers, he adopted the idea of ​​deism.Voltaire said: Regarding the attributes and essence of God, I am not born
understand them.Obviously, Voltaire's "God" is not an idol worshiped by Catholicism, not a personal God, but

It is the inevitable result of its mechanism.By his own admission: the movement does not exist by itself and must therefore have recourse to
an initial mover.Mechanical materialism looks at things according to mechanical principles, clocks and watches can tell time is not
Because people wind it up?Isn't the vehicle able to walk because of the horses?Then the movement of the universe naturally also has something

Something to push!But what and who is this impetus?I don't know, so let God do it.but
God rests after he has done what he has done.Obviously, Voltaire affirmed the nature and its laws in the form of deism.

objectivity.Apparently Marx and Engels said: Deism - at least for the materialists - is nothing but
A simple and easy method.

With this point of view of mechanical materialism, Voltaire's criticism of the "metaphysics" of the seventeenth century, especially Leibniz's "Monadism"
He made a strong criticism. He ridiculed Leibniz as a great genius and a kind of quack at the same time. V
Ertai said that Leibniz discovered with his own genius that the world is originally a collection of monads, so be it, but I don’t care
He Shi couldn't understand what this kind of monad is. In fact, even he himself couldn't understand it. How could the incomprehensible "monad theory"

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Enough to explain the universe? In 1775, an earthquake occurred in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. High-rise buildings collapsed and people and animals died.Voltaire took advantage of this
Facts further criticize Leibniz's "predetermined harmony theory".Voltaire believed that all human concepts come from the external senses

The sense of things in the world is the only source of ideas.He sharply criticized Descartes' conception of innateness, arguing that official religion

At its root are ignorance, fanaticism and deceit.

In this book, Voltaire also highly appreciates Locke's materialist epistemology. In introducing and discussing Locke's thought,

At the same time, he put forward his own perception theory: all concepts come from sensation.Voltaire spoke highly of Locke's philosophy,

It is regarded as the highest peak of philosophical development at that time.Voltaire inherited and developed Locke's empiricism principles, emphasizing all ideas

All from sensory experience.In his view, the first ideas of human beings are their feelings.Ideas come not only from sensations, but from
Restricted by feelings, the more feelings there are, the more ideas there will be. If one does not feel something, people cannot understand it.

What is the concept.And the feeling is not produced out of thin air, the feeling must be based on the external object, if there is no objective existence

If there is no objective thing, it will not be able to produce feelings.

Starting from materialist empiricism, Voltaire criticized Berkeley's subjective idealism.Voltaire clearly stated that the senses are

It is the necessary portal for us to understand external objects. It connects people's cognitive ability with external objective things, and makes people produce
There are all sorts of feelings rooted in things.He pointed out: Sensation is by no means subjective and self-generated, but something external to the senses.
result.If there were no objective things outside of man, it would be impossible for man to have any feeling, let alone any concept.

Voltaire also criticized Descartes' theory of "innate ideas", pointing out that "people have no innate ideas in their hearts".Voltaire criticizing

Inherited and developed Locke's principle of empiricism in the struggle of idealism, and at the same time overcome the incompleteness of Locke's introspection experience

, which is an improvement.But in his epistemological thinking, there are still serious flaws.In his view, people's
Partial knowledge is only the result of "arranging" the many ideas held by "memory".Therefore, people's understanding cannot be deeply
into the essence of things.He said that before our eyes are sharp enough to distinguish the parts of gold from a mustard seed

We cannot have any idea of ​​their nature when they are part of them.

In "Philosophical Letters", Voltaire also introduced a lot of the British bourgeois political system, especially the British monarchy.
Constitution and its form of political organization with separation of powers.Voltaire contrasted the freedom and enlightenment of England with the autocratic slavery of France at that time.

Compare.In his mind, the British political system established through the bourgeois revolution was an ideal system.He said:
"England is the only country in the world that has resisted the monarch to achieve the restraint of the monarch's power... In this government, the monarch has unlimited power.

If you try to do good things, if you want to do bad things, your hands are tied. "He said that Britain has effectively guaranteed the freedom of the people,

Equality, in the British-style bourgeois democratic political system, because the natural rights of the people are effectively guaranteed, so
, the people's social life is extremely happy, and the social atmosphere is healthy and good.According to Voltaire, the English bourgeoisie
China's democratic political system is an ideal kingdom of freedom and equality, and this political system should be promoted throughout the world.

Voltaire affirmed the role of the House of Commons.The House of Commons "is number one in influence despite being number two", he said, and it

It is a huge dam that prevents the comeback of the power of popes, kings, nobles and bishops.

"Communication" praised the equality of the British in economic status.In England, the whole country, whether nobles, priests, or countrymen
My servant, everyone pays taxes according to the law, without exception, and everyone pays taxes not according to his position, but according to his income.

Voltaire's enthusiastic praise of Britain is tantamount to setting up a model for French compatriots who are still under feudal autocracy and slavery of church forces.

A role model for revolution.Therefore, when the French version of the book was published in 1734, the French government was furious and immediately ordered the arrest of the publisher.
Burn the stored books and arrest the author.Voltaire had to flee to a remote town and took refuge in the castle of a marquise for 10 years

as long as.

Representative Works of the Enlightenment Movement of Materialist World Outlook

Voltaire was the first to publicize the advanced ideas of Newton and Locke in France, sharply exposed and criticized Catholicism, and promoted materialism and
The development of atheism made a significant contribution to the French Enlightenment in the 18th century.Especially his Philosophical Letters
Books had a major influence not only in France at that time, but also in human history.

Voltaire's "Philosophical Letters" introduced the advanced ideas of British materialist philosophy into France and greatly promoted materialism.

The socialist world outlook played a huge role in promoting the development of the French Enlightenment.Voltaire as a master of the French Enlightenment
In the early days of the movement, the banner of materialism was set up, thus establishing the direction of materialism in the Enlightenment.
In the process of the French Enlightenment, thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Condillac were basically influenced by Voltaire.
The influence of materialist ideas in this book.

Voltaire's work also played a positive role in promoting the development of French atheistic materialism in the 18th century.Voltaire

The idea of ​​materialist empiricism in his works inherited and carried forward Locke's materialist thought.

Inherited from Descartes' materialist thought, thus laying a solid foundation for the further development of French materialist philosophy

solid foundation.It is not for nothing that many French materialist thinkers claim to be students of Voltaire.

This work of Voltaire, like other works of the Enlightenment period, is a manifesto of the French bourgeois revolution, for this time

The Great Revolution served as a theoretical forerunner.In the book, he put forward many materialist ideas, which were widely known in France.

Accepted by intellectuals and the masses, it has become a huge spiritual force.In his book, the political system and customs of England

The introduction strongly attracts the French bourgeoisie and the people, and has great ideal educational significance for them.he is in the book

A strong criticism of the feudal autocratic system and religion, theoretically destroyed the barriers of the feudal system, and overthrew the feudal rule of the people
The revolutionary movement played the role of the engine.It is precisely because of this that Voltaire enjoyed a high reputation after the French Revolution.
.

However, we should take a critical attitude towards the exposition of the religious part in the book.

(End of this chapter)