politics

Chapter 10 Volume (B) II (2)
Relying on the genetic rule of "parent-child resemblance", you can refer to Section 586a5 and other sections of "Annals of Animals"; "Reproduction", 767a36-769b10.Also, in Volume 190, 20E of "Athena", it is mentioned that women are particularly sensitive to the similarities between parents and children. , one must be able to find some indication of kinship.Some geographers have recorded the fact that in some parts of Upper Libya the women are common, but there, 180 people identify their biological fathers by the similarity of their appearance. This section seems to be based on Herodotus: " History, iv [-], records the situation of the Auseans in North Africa.Herodotus called the Osers "dwellers of the seashore." .Some women, and some female animals, such as zamas and cows, are especially marked in this respect, and the offspring must be like her husband, or the foal and calf must be like the stallion and bull with which they are mated.A good example in reality is the Falsallo mare Falsallo mare known as the "virtuous wife". She is very faithful to the male horse's inheritance, so she is called "just mare" (πποs δικαα), which is translated as "virtuous wife" here. .

Chapter 25:[-]
There are still many challenges to those who advocate this social system, and many are not easy to answer.For example, crimes such as intentional or negligent injury, homicide, quarrels and slander are often taken lightly when committed between non-relatives but become heinous when committed against parents or close relatives .If people do not know the mutual kinship, 30 this kind of crime is easy to happen, and because this society originally has no ethics, after committing this crime, "ethics" (δσιον): the Greeks believed that the clans were all from the gods, so "Human relations" and "sacred relations" are the same.Greek customs regard violators of ethics as blasphemy. If you kill your relatives, even if you escape the punishment by chance, you will be punished by God.In this book, this character is also found in Juan VII 1335b25.See Schmidt: "The Ethics of the Ancient Greeks" (Schmidt, Ethik der Alten Griechen) Volume 400, page [-].

Therefore, etiquette and law cannot increase punishment in the name of rebellion (blasphemy).Although in Plato's (Socrates) system, all the young people in the whole country became the common sons of the senior citizens, and forbidding carnal behaviors between the seniors and the juniors, he did not prohibit the seniors from being friends with the juniors, or even becoming close friends. Plato: The Republic 403A-C. , but this is also wrong.Even if there is no carnal desire, 35 excessive intimacy is not justified, and it would be very disgusting to see such behavior between father and son and brother.And in a society without ethics, these are precisely the things that are easy to happen.Plato (Socrates) only strictly forbade same-sex lust among men because he knew it was against humanity, but he ignored that in the society he envisioned, such things could also happen between father and son and brother.It is also surprising that gay sex with men was quite popular in Greece at the time.Most of Aristotle's arguments here are aimed at the moral concepts that are taken for granted in the contemporary era. .

Judging from the goals pursued by Plato (Socrates), 40 this kind of society where women and children return to the public can only be implemented among the peasants who are ruled, but it is not applicable to the defending citizens of the ruling class in 1262b.In a society where women and children share common ownership, the spirit of "friendliness" will definitely be weakened, and the reduction of mutual friendship between the ruled class is just conducive to their better obedience, and it will also prevent them from attempting to rebel. See volume 1330 28a5. .In a nutshell, in Plato's "Utopia", the effects produced by the system proposed by Socrates must be very different from those obtained by the customary system. It must be the other way around.Friendship is always regarded as the main virtue of the city-state because it is the most helpful to eliminate internal strife. .Socrates paid special attention to the unity and harmony of the city-state. He and the world have thought and explained that only friendship can create such a unity.

10 Yet he expects the unity of all, as in Plato's dialogue "Love" (or "Friendship") in "Love" (ο ρωικο λóγοιs), also titled "Symposium".See 191A, 192C of that article.The love of a man and a woman, as described by Aristophanes, who, because of the intensity of their affection, both love to be one.Such a combination causes one body to disappear and merge with the other, or both bodies to disappear and merge into a new body. 15 As for political organization, too much striving for agreement makes a very different situation: here, friendship is as indifferent as water, and people's relations account for only one thousandth or other fractions.The father is too lazy to call "my" son, and the son is equally lazy to be attached to "my" father.Kinship is so tasteless, like a spoonful of rum mixed with a vat of water. 20 In this social system, fathers will not love their sons, sons will no longer be filial to their fathers, and brothers will not need to respect and love each other. In fact, the names and titles of relatives no longer have their original meaning.Things attract love because they are of two natures: it is yours, and you value yours—but under Plato's constitution you have nothing, and you do not value those things. The so-called belongings belong to you.

In addition, 25 implements the so-called class conversion of newborn babies "about the class conversion of newborn babies", see Plato: "Utopia" Volume III 415B.Aristotle's argument in this section is not very clear.According to the annotation of Welldon’s English translation, the “difficulty” should be that although each person has switched classes, the old consciousness and old relationship of his native class must exist. heavy consciousness.There are also difficulties.Under that ideal system, the babies of lower-class peasants and artisans were inspected and, if deemed bodybuilders, transferred to the higher class of patriotic citizens.On the contrary, those weak babies should be turned into low-level agricultural workers even if they are born to high-level parents.Although the procedures for arranging transfers were cumbersome, the people who handled them still knew the birth history of everyone in each class and the class to which they originally belonged.In addition, the crimes of injury, incest, and murder we mentioned earlier will be easy to occur and are particularly serious among these people who have changed classes.Those children who have descended from the high to the low will not be able to call the citizens of the defending country brothers or parents or sons when they grow up.Although in reality, they happen to be brothers or heirs.The same is true for the promotion of low-level to high-level.Here, since even that fraction of kinship has completely disappeared, they will also have no scruples about crimes against morality. 30
After the above analysis, the world must have a choice about the social ideal of returning women and children to the public.

Chapter five
Let's move on to property-related issues: what would the property system be like in an ideal (that is, a model) regime?Should property belong to each citizen or should it all belong to the public.This issue does not need to be related to the initiative of public education for women and children. The 40th National Congress of the Communist Party of China can be studied as an independent issue.According to current customs, women and children belong to their respective families. As far as the current general government is concerned, we can also ask questions about the property system: Should the application and management of property belong to the public?Or is one part for the public and the other for private? 1263ɑ There are three systems for reference here. ([-]) Divide the land into mounds, which are privately owned, and the harvest is sent to the public storehouse for common consumption. This is the farming system practiced in some barbaric tribes.

5 (1263) On the contrary, the land is cultivated together and completely owned by the public, and the harvest is distributed to everyone, and each family eats its own share; other barbaric peoples use the second method. (8) Both land and harvest are owned by the public. There is also a fourth method for the application and management of the property, that is, the acres and the harvest are owned by private individuals respectively; this point is not mentioned by Aristotle in this section.After stating the three industrial methods, he did not discuss them one by one. 20a1263-21 criticized Plato's public property system, which can be regarded as discussing the third way. 14a1263-b21 explained the advantages of private use of public property - joint production, separate consumption - and can be counted as discussing the second method.The repetition of comments on Plato's idea of ​​the commons in subsequent sections is almost nitpicking.The first mode is never addressed; however this is in contrast to the second mode, which Aristotle, from the opposite side of 14a[-]-b[-], objected to. .

When criticizing Plato's communism in the common ownership of land, Aristotle assumed that Plato advocated common ownership of land and common cultivation.In fact, the public property system proposed in "Utopia" was limited to the class of Weiguo citizens; farmers still maintained the private system and managed their own fields and harvests; only part of the agricultural products had to be handed over to Weiguo people.The defending class has neither family nor private savings.In the "Utopia", the area of ​​arable land of farmers is limited, and Plato did not propose major changes other than this.On the issue, 10 if the cultivator and the owner are not the same person, for example, the landowner uses slaves to cultivate, this situation is easier to deal with.In contrast, on the side of the own-farmers, property ownership tended to give rise to major disputes.If they don't get a balance between work and pay, those who work more and get less will blame those who work less and get more. 15 On various occasions, it is not easy for human beings to live and work together as partners, especially when it comes to property, which often causes a lot of distress.You can take the guests who are traveling with you as an example. They often quarrel over some details on the way, causing some unnecessary chatter every day.We can also take our servants as an example. The servants who have the most daily contact with their masters will always be criticized. 20
The disputes mentioned here are just one or two cases among countless disputes in the public property ownership system.Acceptance of the present system of private property and improvements in proper laws and good manners would make further progress, so that the interests of both public and private property could be accommodated. 25 If, in a certain application, property can be vested in the public, such property should generally be private.By drawing a clear line on the interests of each person, the source of quarrels between people will be eliminated; each person will pay attention to the cause within his own scope, and the situation of each family can be improved.In such a system, every man is urged by moral fashion to use his goods for the benefit of the many, and the spirit of generosity is expressed in a proverb:30 "A friend's goods are common goods." This proverb is found in Plato: "The Republic" Volume IV 424A.Diogenes Laertius: "Biographies of Scholars" Volume 10:[-], this proverb comes from Pythagoras (Pythagoras); his meaning is not in the property system but in friendship, he believes that "friends have the meaning of making money ".This kind of property system is not delusional. In some city-states with good political governance, we can vaguely find that their governance programs already contain these meanings, and it is relatively easy to add such regulations in the systems of other city-states.

In these cities, each citizen manages his own property, and often a part of their property is used to provide for the needs of friends,35 and the other part is used for the public welfare of fellow citizens.For example, in Lacedaemon in Sparta, you can use your friends' dogs, horses or slaves as you would your own. Refer to Xenophon: "The Lagenian Republic" (de RepLac) Chapter VI. ;During the journey, if people lack food, they can get board and lodging in any country estate. .To sum up, it can be seen that "the property is privately owned but the property is shared" refer to the 23 lines above. "Private property and public property" (referred to as "private property public"), this sentence is the gist of Aristotle's economic thought.In the "Laws", Plato said that the first-class utopia in which wives and property are shared is impossible in the world, so he proposed another sub-utopia, that is, the system of private and public property ("Laws" Vol. 26 740A).In Isocrates, there is also the economic thought of "private wealth and public use": "Areopag" (Areopag) 35 and Xenophon: "Memoirs of Socrates" Volume II Chapter VI 23.In a better system of property, the chief function of the legislator should be to try to adapt the temper of the people to this idea of ​​generosity. 40
In matters of property we must also consider the two aspects of life's happiness and virtue.When you think of something as your own, the 1263b can have a huge effect emotionally.Everyone loves themselves, self-love is not an accidental impulse, but out of talent, people's pleasure and love for their own things is actually an extension of self-love.Of course, selfishness should be condemned, but what we want to condemn is not the nature of self-love, but the selfish "self-love" (φλοαυον) that exceeds the limit.Excessive self-love is "selfishness". "Self-love" is actually one of the foundations of moral philosophy, which is the opposite of "self-destruction and self-abandonment". , for example, we despise a man who loves money because he is excessively greedy for money, 5 but in fact people love themselves more or less as well as money or goods.

There is no greater pleasure than when people give alms, or when they have sponsored a fellowship, guest, or friend.Only in the system of private property can such benevolence be brought into play.In a city-state with an over-unified system, not only is this pleasure of self-love and love for others difficult to obtain, but two other virtues will obviously disappear with it.Because of the self-control of passion, 10 people will not have sexual intercourse with other people's wives.This sentence is probably related to the topic of the wife's public and private interests in the previous chapter.Generosity is the virtue manifested in wealth. ; The virtue of generosity (generosity) is all manifested in property, see "Nilon" Volume IV 1119b22. .Generosity can be achieved only when there is property that can be used. In a city-state where all property has been returned to the public, people no longer show the kindness of charity and cannot perform generous acts.

This kind of legislation based on benevolence and benevolence seems to be fascinating.I heard that writers before Aristotle said that there are not many examples of the Greek city-states or tribes implementing the public property system: "Strebo" page 15, wrote that Ephorus once called Xixu Some tribal property, women and children in Scythia are public; Diogenes Laertius: "Biography of Scholars" Volume VI 302, Volume VII 72, 33, wrote that Cynics or Semi-Cynics such as Sinobo Diogenes (Sinope) and Zeno (Citium) also advocated common property.Plato's remarks in the Republic 131 show that he was not enthusiastic about helping the peasants or the people in general to implement the common property system.

(End of this chapter)