politics

Chapter 24 Volume (Γ) Three (4)
The difference in courage between men and women can be seen in Juan 1260, 20a25. , we find different properties.These differences are analogous to the differences in character between being a ruler and being a ruled.If a man's courage was only equal to that of a woman, he would be said to be a coward; on the other hand, if a man's "modesty" (κοσμα) is consistent with "temperance", and the opposite virtue of temperance is "indulgence", Collationists often suspect that the word "Likou (λλο)" is wrong.Aretino's translation is "failure" or "falseness", and the original text revised according to "Su Xiao" is "indulgence (κóλασο)".Even if a woman does not talk more than a kind man, she may be ridiculed as hurting Qiande.In household management, the functions of men and women are also different: the function of one is to acquire property, and the other needs to maintain these properties.These differences are also similar to the functional differences between masters and slaves in a country. [-] Prudence and prudence are the only good virtues that belong exclusively to rulers. Other virtues, such as temperance, justice, and courage, should be possessed by both the master and the slave, but the degree of the two parties can be different. "Mingzhe" is a special quality for rulers, while "faithful obedience" ("knowing the truth") should be a special quality for the ruled.If the ruled are compared to the flute maker, then the ruler is the flute maker who plays on the flute made by the flute maker.

The above content has demonstrated that the moral character of a good person and a good citizen are the same but different. 30 To be more precise, the question of which sense is the same and which sense is different has been explained clearly enough. The argument in this chapter adopts the method of "questioning and solving", and the context of the text is difficult to trace.The translations of various countries in the past dynasties often differ from each other.The whole chapter can be divided into two parts: (11276) 16b37-1276, compared with all forms of city-states, on "whether the virtues of a good man and a good citizen are the same", the conclusion is that the two are different.There are good and bad city-states, but the citizens needed by bad city-states are not good people. (38) 1277b30-1276b38, still talking about the same topic, only citing examples of ideal city-states.This part is divided into two paragraphs: (a) 1277b15-1277a16, in an ideal city-state, the character of a good citizen does not have to be exactly the same as that of a good man, this can be used as a general rule. (b) 30a1278-b40 When the ideal free men form the best ideal city-state, the two are the same.A good citizen, as a statesman (official) and a good person, has the virtue of prudence and prudence.As a ruled free citizen, he has other general virtues like a good man.At this time, every citizen has all the virtues of being a good person.When his political status changes in turn, his moral character also changes accordingly (see Chapter 5 154a173-b107 for details; "New School" III [-]-[-]: Buckle's English translation page [-] at the end of the chapter) . .

Chapter five
There is another issue that should be considered with regard to citizenship.Can only those with ruling functions be called citizens in the true sense? 35 Can artisans be classified as citizens?If you do not hold an official position, the original citizenship proposed by Aristotle should participate in the deliberation and trial functions, that is, "indeterminate functions" (Chapter 1275, 30a[-]).Continuing the debate on civic morality here, citizenship is raised to include participation in certain functions, that is, administrative functions.If the craftsmen are also classified as citizens, then there will be some citizens in this city-state-they do not have the qualities that good citizens should have, that is, the qualities that can be ruled as well as ruled.However, if artisans are not recognized as citizens, how will they settle down in the city-state?Neither Gentiles (travelers) nor aliens (residents), to which section (class) should they belong?This is indeed an embarrassing question.

1278ɑ But the homeless situation of craftsmen is not necessarily absurd. Slaves and "free people" who have been released from slavery are also homeless. They are neither included in the civil register, nor are they foreigners and aliens.It is practically impossible for us to include all the people who maintain the city-state in the name of citizens.Similarly, although a child is similar to a citizen, it always has a different meaning from an adult citizen.Adults are full citizens, and children have not yet developed. If they must be called citizens, they can only be fictitious citizens with reservations in meaning, see Chapter 5 1275a13-14. .In some ancient city-states, slaves and foreigners constituted the entire artisan class, and it has been passed down to the present, where most of the artisans are still slaves and guests. In ancient Greek martial states, such as Sparta, all artisans were classified as Slaves (Xenophon: "Economics" volume four chapter three).Mercantile shipping countries are as important as Corinth, and craftsmen have a better status, which does not completely exclude them from the civil society.When Athens was restructured in Solon, many slaves were redeemed as free people because of the "exemption order" (seisaiktheia), and they lived on crafts and servants (Plutarch: "Biography of Solon" 24).

Later, the strength of Athens' navigation industry and navy was due to these mechanics and helpers ("Diodorus" xi433).Many of the technicians in Athens are from Hakka, see Plato: "Laws" 848A, and Demo is Sany: "Eubu-lid" (Eubu-lid) 31. .In the best form of the city-state, artisans are not considered citizens.In a city-state that allows craftsmen to be naturalized, it is impossible to require every citizen to have the good qualities of being able to be governed as well as to be governed. Only those few people who do not hold vulgar jobs possess these qualities of good citizens.There are two types of people who are engaged in these lowly jobs necessary for the survival of the city-state—slaves serve privately, and craftsmen and servants (artisans and coolies) serve society. This section divides the people of the city into two parts, one part is Citizens who enjoy political rights, and the other part are those who are beneficial to the economic life of the city-state. Although they are necessary for the city-state but do not enjoy political rights, see Volume 10, Chapter 1275. .Further research on the basis of these narratives will reveal the status of artisans and servants.In fact, if you understand some of our previous discussions Chapter 38 4a15-b[-]. , [-] There is no need to elaborate on this issue.

As there are many different kinds of government, there are likewise many different kinds of citizens, and there are even more kinds of the governed citizens who hold no office.For example, in one constitution artisans and servants are citizens; but in others they cannot be citizens.For example, in the so-called "aristocratic" city-state, meritorious service and character are the only basis for assigning positions. Therefore, people who live by crafts and coolies cannot fulfill their moral character, and thus cannot become citizens of this kind of city-state.In oligarchic (plutocratic) regimes, the situation is different.Here, the various official positions required such high property conditions that servants could never become citizens, while artisans, because they could get rich, were sometimes granted citizenship.However, such a regulation was implemented in Thebes: Anyone who has been in business must not engage in business activities at all within ten years,20 before he can hold public office. See Volume VI 25a1321.Most of the craftsmen in ancient Greece took their own products and sold them in the market. The people in the market here refer to the craftsmen or the masters of the handicraft workshops, that is, the craftsmen. .

Contrary to these spirits, there are many other regimes that have relaxed citizenship, and Hakka citizens can also easily become naturalized.For example, some civilian governments allow a man (half-guest) to be naturalized as long as his biological mother is a citizen; in some city-states, this regulation also applies to illegitimate children.However, the reason why citizenship qualifications are so wide open is probably because there is a lack of authentic citizens in the state, so this policy has to be implemented as a temporary expedient measure.This temporary statute due to the small number of people30 was gradually abolished after the population increased: first, it was not applicable to those who restricted either the biological father or the biological mother to be a slave. , nor should they be listed as citizens.The grades of mixed-blood offspring are as follows: ([-]) Heirs born to native citizens and Hakka free citizens or wealthy families; (A) The biological father is a native citizen and the biological mother is a Hakka; (B) The biological father is a Hakka daughter and the biological mother is a citizen of the state; ([-]) The offspring of citizens and residents of this country or foreign slaves, (a) the biological father is a national citizen and the biological mother is a slave, (b) the biological father is a slave and the biological mother is a free person. ; Finally, citizenship is limited to children born to both parents who must be citizens of this country.

Here, we have explained how many types of citizens there are, among which can participate in city-state official positions and honors (names) μ is usually translated as "honor" or "honor"; honor and merit are mostly obtained from military and political positions, so its actual meaning includes It is related to the official position, which is consistent with the "name and position" in Chinese.Citizens are the most honorable kind. 35 So Homer has a verse that says:
"Seeing me as non-human and depriving me of glory" see "Iliad" volume 648 59, volume [-] [-]. ;
Those who did not receive honors in the state or participate in the city's office were like some residents of the Gentiles.Although there may not be no reason at all, some rulers use covert methods to exclude certain people from city-state official positions,40 to deceive the residents of the country. The qualifications for office in general oligarchic regimes clearly stipulate that poor and lowly people are not allowed to be officials (Volume 1308, 33b1297 ).Some oligarchs and aristocratic regimes are actually aimed at maintaining minority rule, but the official qualifications are vague, so as to deceive the Mongolians so that there are no ideas from outside the government (see Volume 7, Chapter 41, and [-], [-]a[-]-[-] for details. ). .

Regarding the question of whether the virtues of a good man and a good citizen are the same, we can also conclude from the above arguments: (1278) In some city-states, the virtues of a good man and a good citizen are the same, while in others they are both different. (5) In the former type of city-state, not all good citizens are good people, only those who alone or jointly lead and perform official duties, or are leading and capable enough to lead, that is, politicians, must be both To be a good citizen while being a good person This section should be the conclusion of Chapter [-]. It is a wrong summary here, or it is written for later generations. . [-]
Chapter Six
After the nature of the citizen is determined, we should then study the topic of the political system. Chapter 1 of this volume raises the question of "what is a city-state (Pori)" and what is a citizen (Polyde).According to the chapter 1274b41 that "a city-state is a group (combination) of several citizens", then Chapters 1-5 discuss the nature of citizens, and then answer the question of the city-state. Chapters 6-8 go on to describe the "regime" composed of "citizen groups", that is, the "political system of citizen groups".See note 1275a1. .Is there only one type of government, or are there several?If there are several kinds, should we clarify their number and enumerate the different types, and then describe the differences of each type?The regime (constitution) is the basis for all political organizations of the city-state, among which the organization of the "supreme governance" that plays a decisive role in politics is particularly important. Please refer to Chapter 1274 38b1289 of this volume; .

No matter what type of city-state it is, 10 its supreme governing power must be entrusted to the "citizen group", which is actually the city-state system, see the next chapter 1279a25-27. .For example, the governing power of the civilian regime is entrusted to the civilians (Demo) "Demo" (δμο), (509) The original meaning is "countryside" as opposed to "city".When Crescenes reorganized the citizens of Attica (15 BC), he divided the suburban area into a hundred "demos", which later became the common name for urban and rural areas ("fangshe"). ([-]) The term is used for the people, originally referring to the common people who lived scattered in the suburbs. Compared with the royal family or nobles living in the city, the fangshe became the common division of urban and rural areas, and "Demote" (δημóηs) also became an ordinary citizen (fangshe resident) ) generic name."Democracy" (civilian regime) derived from "Demo" was originally an Athenian word, and then most of the Athenian words were commonly learned by the Greeks, and over time it became a common term in all countries in the world. , while the governing power of the oligarchy is entrusted to a few people.Now that there is such a difference between the two bodies in which the governing power rests, we proceed further to enumerate the difference between the two forms of government. [-] By the same token, we will also distinguish between various other types of regimes.

First, let us study the purpose of the city-state, and then mention the various dominations accepted by human beings and human societies.In the chapter "On Housekeeping and Master-Slave System" in the previous part, "The first volumes of "On Housekeeping and Master-Slave System" (Despotism)" correspond to volume (A) of the extant manuscript of Politics one.The sentence quoted below can be found in Juan 1253, Chapter 2, 1260a12.The "Volumes of "On Various Forms of Government" (system of free citizen rule)" mentioned in Section [-]b[-] of the last chapter of Volume [-] should refer to volumes [-] to [-] (B—Θ) of the existing manuscripts.In this way, the "former edition" is housekeeping, and the "other edition" is state affairs.Some also called the previous edition "Ethical Politics" and another edition as "Technical Politics".However, Aristotle’s “volumes”, as far as the part dedicated to housework is concerned, there is only one volume now, and it is really difficult for us to pick up the chapters on the master-slave system from the second and eighth volumes.Or test in volumes two to eight, with theory and practice as the key points, divided into front and rear parts, but carefully inspecting these seven volumes, the writing is often mixed with theory and real politics, and it is rare to have a proper division.Or try to distinguish between monarchy and constitutionalism based on the type of government, which is also impossible.Therefore, modern translations often ambiguously interpret the "pre-compiled volumes" as the "first volume" of the book "Politics".

(End of this chapter)