politics

Chapter 26 Volume (Γ) Three (6)
However, both sides have neglected the real point, that is, the purpose for which the city-state exists.If it is true that property is the end of all men for gregariousness and association, then the duties and honors of the city should be distributed among men in proportion to the property they give.According to this theory, the reason of the oligarchs (plutocrats) faction is sufficient-if the person who invests in one mina and the other 99 mina are to enjoy the principal and interest of 100 mina equally, this is the real injustice ( inequality). 30 But the city-state does not only exist for life, it should also exist for a good life. ; If the 1252st row starts and ends until the 29th row, the original sentence is all subordinate to the preamble sentence of "if...", and some bracket clauses are inserted in the middle. The concluding sentence is actually seen in 1278a24...so sentence.Referring to various translations, the linking words of the sentences have been changed to distinguish this long sentence.Its purpose is only to live (survive), so slaves can also form a city-state of slaves, and beasts can also have city-states of beasts.

We know, however, that there are no such city-states, and that slaves and beasts, because they do not have free will, cannot form groups for the pursuit of true happiness.Similarly, the purpose of the city-state is not only to seek mutual aid to defend against all encroachments, nor is it merely to facilitate the exchange of goods to promote economic exchanges. 35 If the purpose of the city-state is only these, then the Tilinians and the Carthaginians can be merged into one state, and other states that have concluded commercial treaties should also be merged accordingly.In fact, these states do have contracts for import and export, and have concluded commercial treaties, stipulating that they will not harm each other's people's interests in commerce, and guarantee their respective legitimate behavior.There are also written military mutual aid alliance treaties among these states. In classical Greece, the Mediterranean cities engaged in mining and handicraft industry, and exchanged copper, iron and pottery for agricultural products from Africa, Italy, Asia Minor and the Black Sea region.In many city-states, the government manages the export and import of grain, and they enter into "trade contracts" with each other.As for all the actions of business personnel between the two states, if there is a dispute, it will be settled according to the terms of the business contract.See Hicks: Inscription No. 40 of Hicks, Manual of GrHistInscriptions.

The Tirini refer to the inhabitants of Etruria in the northern part of the Latin region on the Italian peninsula.There is a statute on the trade between Carthage and the coastal cities of Italy, but its details are unknown.Busolt: "History of Greece" (Busolt, GrGe-sch), Volume 753, pages 755-535, mentioned that in 1280 BC, the combined fleet of the Carthaginians and the Etrorians expelled Tierini The Phoenician colonization on the island of Corsica (Corsica) in the sea fully proves that the two states once had a "military alliance". .However, on the other hand, the two states did not have a common commercial officer to manage the trade between the two states; instead, they each set up their own functions to manage the business of their own state.The treaty between the two parties is limited to preventing and punishing the actions of one's own personnel that are harmful to the other's personnel during trade, without worrying about the moral character of the other's personnel, and there is no need in the treaty to ensure that all people participating in the trade business will not violate justice (illegal) or other egregious acts.

5 But once the city has good laws and has the will to govern well, it has to take care of all the good and the bad in the life of the people of the state.Therefore, as long as it is not in name only, a city-state that truly becomes a "city-state" must aim at promoting goodness.Otherwise, a political body would resemble a military alliance, differing only in space, with the inhabitants of a "city-state" living in the same space, and the people of a "confederation" living in two separate areas. regions.If not, 10 laws would be nothing more than some temporary contracts.To quote the wise man (sophist) Lu Gebolong, the law is only a "temporary guarantee that people will not infringe each other's rights", but the actual meaning of the law should be to promote the permanent progress of justice and goodness in the whole country. For system 1280a25-b12, refer to volume 1252, chapter 27, 1253b2-1278a16 and this volume, chapter 30, 1278b26-[-].This section expounds that the purpose of human beings to form groups is military, economic, and political (Note [-]b[-]); Higher purpose, not in line with the higher purpose of human beings. .

The purpose of a city-state is to promote goodness, and this purpose is very well demonstrated, it is obvious.Although the two states (cities) of Megara and Corinth were surrounded by the same wall, 15 they were not yet one state.Although intermarriage is one of the symbols of social life within a state, even if the residents of two states (cities) have intermarried with each other, it still cannot be said that they have merged into one state.Even if they have realized the following arrangements, they still cannot be said to have become a state: people can reach each other although they are far apart, and have concluded statutes with each other to protect and not harm each other in the exchange of goods, as a mutual observance. ordinances.We imagine the people who take part in this exchange, one is a carpenter, another is a farmer, another is a shoemaker, 20 and some other producers of goods, there are many people, we can also imagine that the number here is as many as 1 people.

However, if the combination of these people is limited to the exchange of goods and even defense alliances, then their combination has not yet reached the stage of a city-state political organization. The moral purpose of the organization testifies: (1280) continuity, people in the same area can contact each other; (12) blood mixing due to intermarriage; (1016) daily life is arranged within the same defense system due to economic exchanges.These three possible combinations of non-moral purposes are described in turn, and it is proved that none of them can become the political organization of the city-state, which contradicts the original moral theme. .why?That's not because, as the same group, the molecules contained in it still lack continuity. The "continuity" contained among the molecules is the condition for the "unity" of things. .In the combination mentioned above, people gather as much as possible in a meeting place that is closely connected, but if they each keep a family and manage their household affairs as if ruling a city-state, the function of their gathering is limited to common defense against some temporary occurrence. infringement only.To put it simply, after the assembly is completed, people carry on their original life as before the assembly.

Therefore no serious thinker would say that this combination is a city-state (political system). 30 Therefore, a city-state is obviously not just a number of settlement groups living in the same area, but also a number of mass groups formed to facilitate exchange and prevent mutual damage, that is, economic and military groups. Although these are indeed necessary conditions for the existence of a city-state, but All these conditions are not enough to constitute a city-state.A city-state is formed by the union of several well-lived families or tribes in pursuit of a self-sufficient and perfect life.But such a perfect union would not have been possible if the people had not lived together and intermarried.Therefore, common phenomena of "social life" such as marriage relations, clan altars, religious ceremonies, and social and cultural activities can often be seen in each city-state.These enterprises can promote friendship among people, and friendship is only an expression of the sentiment of social life.These activities are just a means to achieve an end,35 that is, to realize the "good life" that a city-state pursues. The perfect life, thus achieving the so-called true happiness of human beings, refer to Volume 40, 1281b1252-27a1253; .

From the above we can conclude that political groups exist not for social life, but for good deeds.We should establish the concept of "justice" according to this conclusion.Therefore, whoever does the most good deeds in this group, 5 according to the spirit of justice, that is, "fairness", he is more noble than those who are also free people of blood (status) or family status, or People richer than him, with superior political virtues, should enjoy a greater share in this city-state.It can be seen from this that the concept of "justice" held by the two parties who have different opinions on the issue of political system, that is, the populists and the oligarchs, is biased. For the explanation of the terms "justice" and "law" in this chapter, please refer to the notes to 1280a8 and 1287b6. .

Chapter Ten
10 It is also a problem about who should have the supreme governance power of the city-state: hand it over to the "mass". Except for a large number of slaves, the free civil society of the Greek city-states can generally be divided into two layers: the minority and the majority. . (1278) The "upper minority" (13b1281) mainly refers to "wealthy households" (bourgeoisie), and also includes "virtuous people" and "famous people" (noble people) or "noble people". (11) The "majority at the lower level" (1278a12) includes the "mass", that is, "common people" (1137b31). Among the common people, some are "poor people" (poor class), and some are "crowds" who are unemployed and unemployed.The so-called "noble people" are those who maintain fairness and justice. They can make up for omissions in the law and resolve social disputes. They can also be listed in the middle of these two layers of citizens.See "Nilon" Volume Five Chapter Ten 1374a1375; "Rhetoric" Volume One Chapter Thirteen 25b, Chapter fifteen [-]a[-].Or "rich family" or "noble man" or "best man in the world" or "tyrant", among these five, choosing any one will produce inappropriate consequences.

How could those consequences not follow?If the poor occupy the supreme power, they will use their majority status to divide up the property of the rich—is this practice unjust (illegal)? 15 The populace will come out and answer: "No, the gods will see you, the gods will see you (N Δα), literally translated as "Oh, God", this is a colloquial sentence, it has the meaning of an oath, and it is used to emphasize the meaning of the original sentence. Guaranteed to be true. According to Bonitz: "Index", this colloquial language, is only found in this section of this book and the next chapter 1281b18 in its entirety. This is a measure taken by the supreme governing body in accordance with justice (law).

"However, we can then ask: If this is not extreme injustice (illegal), what is injustice? Any majority in the whole state, whether it is a well-off family or a poor person, if they take the minority If we take property and take it for ourselves, then obviously this kind of majority is destroying the city-state. However, virtue will not let us destroy any good things, and justice will certainly not destroy the city-state. Therefore, this confiscation (distribution of spoils) ) is obviously absolutely unjust. 20 If this kind of law is just, the deeds of the tyrant must also be just. Just as the majority of the common people coerces the rich by force (higher legal power), so the tyrants also coerce others in the same way. Would it then be just (lawful) for them to act justly (lawfully) if a few wealthy men governed as well? If they also plundered and confiscated the common people as others If it is lawful, then what the common people do to the rich should also be regarded as just. There is no doubt about it, so all these violent acts are despicable and unjust.

Let me ask, is it in line with justice that a small number of noble people (virtuous) govern and hold the highest governing power?We can see that although noble people do not confiscate other people's property, according to this system, although other people can keep property, they are not allowed to hold office.The mission of the city-state was originally a position (honor), and after a small number of people occupy these positions, other people in the 30-state will never be able to obtain these positions.If it is governed by the best person, is it the best?The nature of this system is actually more oligarchy than rich households and virtuous government, and there will naturally be more people who are not famous in the state.Some see that no matter who is put in power, it cannot be a good constitution, because no "individual" or group of persons is immune to the influence of personal sentiments. 35 These people then suggested entrusting the supreme governing power to "the law" and "the rule of man is not as good as the rule of law".

Pythagoras had already advocated it (Diodorus: "History" Volume 274 77, Diogenes Laertius: "Scholar's Biographies" Volume 713 11).Plato: "Laws" 13E preached that the great gods no longer sent elves to bless the peace and prosperity of the world as in the era of Cronus. Human beings need laws to achieve peace and prosperity.In this section, Aristotle said that the law is still not easy to solve the original problem, and then analyzed Plato’s idea of ​​the rule of law. He believed that there is a difference between good and bad laws. If they are bad laws, they cannot establish the justice of the city-state, nor can they promote peace and prosperity. .The following chapters, such as volume four, chapter four and five, also reflect Aristotle's advocacy of the rule of law. .But the law itself can either be inclined to the oligarchs or to the common people. How is such a rule different from the oligarchs or the common people (democratic) faction in charge of supreme governance?In fact, it is the same. For the above-mentioned consequences, see lines 14-27 for the original question, and for the consequences, see lines [-]-[-].It still has to happen, and the question of who will hold the supreme sovereignty we propose, even if the expectation is placed on the law, is still a question.

Chapter Eleven
For other themes we will study later, see Chapter 40 and Volumes 214 and 1275 of this volume. , here we first consider the item of "mass" governance - it seems that entrusting governance power to a few good people (virtuous) is worse than entrusting it to the majority of civilians, although there are some difficulties in it. "New School" III 35 said that this difficulty is Refers to the difficulty of Chapter 1281 5b[-]. , but after all, it also contains certain truths. Compared with other options, the [-]b system seems to be more preferable.As far as the majority is concerned, each individual among them often has little virtue at all, but when they are combined as a group, they may often exceed the wisdom of a few virtuous people.Just like a banquet hosted by multiple people can be better than a banquet hosted by one person.Similarly, if many people discuss a matter together, and each contributes an opinion and a thought,[-] the whole assembly is assembled like a strange man with many brothers, feet, and ears, who has many personalities and various Kind of clever.

(End of this chapter)