politics

Chapter 64 Volume (H) Seven (2)
Anaxagoras considered the Mines of one carat who lived in Athens for a long time as "immigrants" and was forced to abandon Athens in his later years and did not return to his homeland. Finally, he died in Lambersaco and did not participate in city-state politics throughout his life ( See "Rhetoric" volume two chapter 231398b15).Democritus resigned from the magistrate to take up residence (cf. Cicero, de Oratore iii 1556).Isocrates stated his opinion that he would not hold official positions for life in Sections 145 and 150 of "Recall".Aristotle pays attention to practice. He believes that goodness is not found in thoughts than in actions, so he regards participating in politics as a legitimate life for everyone; ? 15 The second is that we can assume that the political activities of a city-state require the unanimous participation of all citizens, or that only the majority of citizens need to participate. According to the above assumptions, which type of government is the best for this city-state? , What is the best arrangement? The second question in this section is actually followed by the first question.The best form of government makes it possible for those who once disliked tyranny or despise politics because of the tumult of the crowd to no longer shy away from the affairs of the world, so that everyone is happy to participate in politics. ?
Different from the first question, the second question is related to political thought and theory, which happens to be in our current special article, which is the seventh volume and eighth volume of the current "Politics".Within the scope of the study, 20 as for the first question about personal goodness, it is not the subject we are going to study at present, but only a side discussion subordinate to the subject.One thing everyone knows about the best form of government is this: it must be that political organization which enables every man, whether practical or contemplative, to live a happy life to the best of his ability.However, although everyone can reach agreement on this point, there are many differences of opinion on another point. 25 Even those who agree on virtue as the cornerstone of the best life disagree on this point: what kind of life is based on virtue?Practice worldly affairs by participating in political activities, or live alone in so-called meditation (contemplation) life isolated from all external objects and worldly things-according to some people's judgments, a philosopher's career is just speculation?Here, we can say that from ancient times to the present, all honest sages who advocate virtue have had two different ways of life—political life and philosophical life.It is not easy to determine which side the truth belongs to; however, whether it is for the individual's "individual" life thought according to line 30 above, it is occasionally combined with the political collective life of the "city-state".

The theme of this chapter is to explore a better life in the city-state and to study a political system that is consistent with it; the key point of the problem is whether the state should concentrate on internal cultivation (line 35) or strive to expand (line 1324b5)?Or being a city-state is an important juncture, and it is necessary to rely on its wisdom to choose a better course of action to achieve a more noble ambition (goal).Some people think that all states should be content with internal governance, 35 and should not use their own power to interfere in the internal affairs of neighboring countries; they hate all autocratic rule politics should pay attention to internal repair, and hate the idea of ​​autocracy and violence, see Anaxagoras For his thoughts, please refer to "Niron", Chapter 1139, Chapter 13, 11a1324, and for Isocrates, please refer to "Book to the Sons of (Tyrant) Jason" 16. criticize it as the most immoral moral lack of justice in the world, and they find it difficult to accept a political system rooted in the rule of law. εημερα, "sunny day", translated as "Tian Shi", see Note [-]a[-].Still get in the way.

Others think just the opposite: they think that the business of life consists in the business of the world and the politics of the state; Temperance, justice, prudence) will not be able to practice "New School" Ⅲ 40. Contrary to Anaxagoras and other internal cultivation thoughts and people who focus on life and politics, take Gorgias as an example (see Plato's "Manno" 324E, "Great Hippia" [HippMaj] 71B and Xenophon's "Long March" ii 282, 6, etc.).In Plato's "Utopia" 16C, the political thoughts of Protagoras and Prodicus are similar.

Although the political thoughts of the Athenians like theory and debate, most of them advocate merit and value practice. You can refer to Chapters 40 and 41 of the second volume of Thucydides, which summarizes Athenian culture and its political morals. .Those who value world affairs and political life, 1324b, some put this as the limit of their arguments, while others go further, and even think that the government that really benefits the people is the government of despotism and tyranny; and such a state in the world There are not a few countries that regard enslaving their neighbors as their purpose (job), forcing the system and laws and the purpose of this expansion. Here, among the practical thinkers, Aristotle divided them into extremes. and Moderate.There are many politicians who try to expand outwards instead of internal repairs in real politics. "New School" III 325, this chapter raises this question and the corresponding explanations and criticisms, and thinks that it may be written in response to Alexander's expedition (see Aristotle's "Remnants" 1581 18b1333. Encourage this kind of politics There were also many scholars and writers who expanded at that time and before (see the following article 5 21b5-[-]).

Indeed, in most city-states, most of the laws are just miscellaneous regulations; but we should understand that they are not completely useless, and at least have one goal-hegemony.For example, in Lacedaemon (Sparta) and Crete, they formulated the education system and most of the laws for the purpose of engaging in war. See Volume II 1271b2-7 and Volume VII 1333b5-16; ", Volume 626 633A and 31; ​​and Plutarch's "Leika Gushi Biography" 33 and "Abenselao Biography" 10. .Similarly, all non-Greek peoples who are strong and powerful enough to conquer other countries attach great importance to martial virtue, as do the Scythians, Selekis, Persians, and Celtics. The warlike peoples listed in De "ii167 are the Scythians, Serekians, Persians, and Lydians; here the Kerds (northern peoples) are cited, not the Lydians. .

Among these nations (countries), some promulgated special laws to encourage martial arts; it is said that Carthage awarded a new wristband (armor) that symbolized glory to every soldier who was about to go out. According to Newman, κρκων As an explanation of "wrist ring", Plutarch's "Biography of Demosynes" 30, said òν κρκον stated "worn on the wrist". .For another example, in Macedonia, there was once a special law that stipulated that 15 all men who had not killed an enemy could only be tied around their waists, and they were not allowed to wear this law.The belt can be inlaid with gold and jade to show honor. "Collection" (Anthologia Palatina) xi 238, talks about the costumes of Cappadocians officials, with belts around their waists. .

According to the customs of the Sijutai people, any man who has not killed an enemy cannot participate in the joyous drinking in the cup passing ceremony of a festival feast. The custom of "passing the cup" and drinking can be seen in nomadic peoples.There are similar records in "Shu Xue Yan Yu" 498 written by Athens. .The Iberi nation is also a warlike nation, and similar martial customs are popular among them; 20 sharp stones (stone pillars) are surrounded around the grave of the deceased to mark his military exploits during his lifetime, and the number of sharp stones is the number of enemies he killed in his life. The number of people Plato's "Laws" 637D, enumerates the warlike peoples of non-Greek peoples as Scythians, Carthaginians, Persians, Kerdes, Serekians and Iberians; The Greeks cite the Cretans and Spartans.The Iberians are brave and good at fighting, which can also be seen in "Thucydides" vi90 and "Theodorus" xiv758.

Nicholas of Damascus' "Fragments" 121; on the east coast of the Euxin Sea (Black Sea), at the foot of the Caucasus Mountains, a Sijutai tribe named Sindi (Σνδοι) was sacrificed after the death of his comrades. The number of people he killed in his life offered as many fish (Müller's "Fragments of Greek History" Volume III 460).

Some translations of βελσκου use "shizhu" (huabiao) as the interpretation, and according to Newman ("School Edition" III page 329) and Jackson (Jack-son) interpretation (see the English notes of the fourth edition of "Su School") as "sharp stone". .

This kind of traditional rules advocating the spirit of martial arts is popular among all ethnic groups, some of which are based on customs, and some are established as laws.Yet, to a sober and reflective mind, it is astonishing that a statesman, absorbed in schemes to subdue and rule his neighbours, should have no regard for the will of others.In fact, this kind of rule is not legal. How can a politician or legislator conceive of such an illegal thing?If you have power, you will give up justice. This kind of coercive rule regardless of right and wrong (righteousness or unrighteousness) must be illegal.No other art or science can match this statesmanship.Just as no physician or helmsman should ever use deception or coercion with a sick man or a sailor. 25 However, when it comes to politics, many people seem to have come to believe that the real skill of the statesman is the tyranny of the master over the slave; (people of foreign races and foreign countries) are not ashamed when they are implemented.When dealing with matters among themselves, they always demand justice as the basis; 30 but for people outside themselves, they don't talk about justice.Such behavior is so absurd; if some elements in the world are naturally free, while others naturally need to be ruled, then the power of despotism should be limited to those parts that are not free, and should not extend this power anywhere

40 See Juan 1255 6b15-1287 and Juan 37 1489b27; see also "Remnants" 154 704b1334.See Isocrates' "Philippus" (Philippus) 31, exhorting Philip to treat the Greek states well and extend Macedonian authority to non-Greek (barbarian) peoples. .No one would hunt man for a table or a sacrifice: the hunt should pursue what is fit for the need, and the table or sacrifice should be the wild animal that can be killed.Imagine a lonely but happy city-state in a place isolated from the world. See Plato's "Laws" 1325C for the idea of ​​"Happy Island".Also, see note [-]a[-] in Chapter [-] of this volume. . Although the city-state of [-]α has no neighbors, many excellent etiquettes have been handed down, and everyone spent happy years here.Obviously this is a typical good regime, but advocating war and conquest of enemy countries will never be the purpose of this regime, so according to our previous assumption, this independent city-state does not have any enemy countries.

5 From the discussion so far, it is enough for us to understand one point, if everyone thinks that martial arts is also a kind of good virtue (good karma), martial arts is a kind of virtue, and its way is courage. , but after all, it cannot become the main purpose of human beings beyond everything: martial arts are just some means used by people to achieve the main purpose.The good life common to all, and the happiness which it derives from it, should be the real object to which good legislators should concern themselves with regard to any city or race or society.Legislators should insist on this purpose, just to adapt to different circumstances. When making laws, 10 can completely change certain regulations.If a city-state is bordered by several neighboring countries, see Volume II, Chapter VI, 1265a20-26 and Chapter VII, 1267a19-21. The statesman who legislates for it has to meet the possible provocations of each neighboring country and has to take into account the national conditions, so that his people should exercise corresponding exercises in advance and arrange various appropriate measures. 15 However, the question of the purpose that the best ideal city-state should have will be discussed separately later, see Chapters [-] and [-] of this volume. .

Chapter three
Now, we must study the opinions of those two schools of scholars who also regard virtue as the best life of human beings, but hold different views in practice. See the first of the two problems mentioned in the previous chapter 1324a13-18 ——"Should life be in the world or avoid seclusion?", it has been stated in lines 19-21 that it belongs to personal life and ideological issues, which can be ignored, but in fact, this issue still contains political thoughts, so this chapter focuses on This is a deeper argument. .Some people who hate politics think that the life of an independent free man is different from that of a politician, and that they are usually happy to be quiet and prefer to hide from the world.Yet another school of thought holds that 20 political activity is one of the best lives.There must be "good deeds" in life before there can be "happiness". If people "do nothing", there will be no "good deeds" to speak of.Both schools of thought have their arguments, but both have many fallacies.

The former is right that the life of an independent free man is better than that of the master of several slaves.We cannot call managing slaves and exercising dictatorship over slaves an honor, and we may not necessarily be able to show how noble we are when we command the people on daily vulgar things.In addition, they believe that all authority is the authority of the slave owner, which is incorrect.The natural free man is different from the former slave, and the rule among free men is not the same as the rule of slave masters over slaves.We have already expounded a great deal on this subject in the first paper see chapters four to seven of volume one. .Another fallacy of theirs is that the scholars of this school regard 25 "inaction" (òπραεν) too highly, so they think that "inaction" is slightly better than "doing" (ò πραεν).Practice ("doing something") is happiness, and the main reason why the righteous and those who practice rites can realize their goodness lies in their actions.

(End of this chapter)