A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century
Chapter 11 The Roman Empire and Greco-Roman Civilization
Chapter 11 The Roman Empire and Greco-Roman Civilization
The successors of Augustus
Hereditary Monarchy Although Augustus strictly adhered to the old customs of the Roman Republic, where the ruler did not have a throne or crown, the country he bequeathed to his descendants was actually a hereditary monarchy.The Republic was considered to be essentially an empire, and Augustus was later called Emperor, or "Führer", meaning "ruler".In addition, in this country, the emperor is not jointly elected by the elders and the common people assembly, but the emperor himself chooses the successor among the members of the royal family-his son or adopted son.
This hereditary monarchy lasted until AD 68 through Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero.
The rulers after Augustus were not as careful to conceal the de facto despotism as he was.They are often elected for life in rigged elections.At the same time, the power of the People's Assembly was completely suspended, and for the officials nominated by the emperor and the proposed laws, the Senate only retained the form of voting, and in fact it was unable to control the government.The emperor has mastered the most important departments of the three governments: army, finance, and public works.
Bread and Circus Although part of the fiscal revenue of the empire was used for the luxurious life of the royal family, in order to gain prestige and the loyalty of the people, the emperors also tried their best to meet the people's requirements for "bread and circus", that is, part of the fiscal revenue was used to subsidize the citizens food and recreational activities.They distributed free grain from Egypt to the proletarians of Rome.During festivals, the streets of Rome are filled with crowds, parades in the streets, performances in theaters, chariot races in circuses, and fighting and fighting in arenas, which make people applaud.It is horrifying that the favorite pastime of the people is to watch man-to-man fights and brutal fights between men and lions and leopards, and they are completely indifferent to the killing and bloodshed.Another part of the finances was used to support the army loyal to the royal family and build public works.
Public Buildings and Palaces In addition to public entertainment, the emperors did not hesitate to spend on public construction.Build magnificent broad stone roads and blocks in Rome and the cities of other provinces, build marble temples and forums, and build stone aqueducts to supply Rome with more water.In 64 AD, the great fire in Rome destroyed most of the city. Nero, the ruler at that time, presided over the reconstruction of straight and wide avenues, and replaced the old wooden sheds with solid houses.A large park was opened in the place destroyed by the fire, and the famous "Golden House" was built in the park, which was a huge palace made of stone and marble.For public entertainment, he publicly burned Christians accused of being arsonists as torches.
Although Augustus, like the chief nobleman in Rome, tried not to be pompous or prominent in his life.But his successors imitated the eastern emperor one after another, lived a life of luxury, and were extremely proud.Among them, Caius and Nero, even imitating the king of Egypt, insisted on being worshiped as gods.
Tyrants and Reigns of Terror The word "tyrant" comes from Greek, and its original meaning was only to refer to a ruler who used violence to rule. Later, it was also used to refer to a despotic and bloodthirsty ruler.In both senses, many of Rome's dictators or emperors were tyrants.A ruler who relies on violence to maintain his position is always suspicious and apprehensive about threats to his power.
The four emperors after Augustus, no matter how pompous and conceited they were, were not absolutely sure of their throne or even their lives.Therefore, they had to visit the army to obtain the support of the Guards soldiers.Then rely on this select team to put pressure on the elders and the populace.This guard army also became a sharp weapon for the emperors to wipe out their opponents.But another question arose that frightened the emperors: what if the Guards rebelled?
There is no doubt that this kind of suspicious psychology is inextricably linked to the indulgent drinking and bloody cruelty at that time.This kind of psychology can make it easier for us to understand why the four emperors after Augustus are considered bloodthirsty tyrants and monsters.
Tiberius was a hard-working, middle-aged general who was not cruel in the early days of his succession.But as his power expanded, he killed many people who were suspected of being a threat to him, which earned him the title of "tyrant".Caius was a young man of twenty-five, popular at first, but his four years as emperor had made him profligate and cruel.His nickname "Caligula," or "Little Army Boots," is better known than his inhuman notoriety, because as a child he liked to walk about in a pair of army boots, pretending to be.When Claudius was in power, he was a bookish middle-aged man, but he wanted to conquer Great Britain, which Julius Caesar had visited.Nero was originally a 25-year-old boy who loved poetry, painting and music, and was also a good student of the philosopher Seneca, but he soon indulged in alcoholism, murder and licentiousness.These people always accuse others of crimes, but they also commit the same mistakes and crimes.
Within a year of 68-69, Caligula was murdered, Claudius was poisoned, and Nero was forced to commit suicide to avoid being assassinated.Three emperors rose and fell one after another. In the end, two were killed, one committed suicide, and then Vespasian from the local province took over.
One flaw with the monarchy founded by Vespasian Augustus was that it was too Roman.The provinces and the legions stationed on the frontier felt that they had more say in the emperor's choice.After Nero's death, Spain, Gaul, the Rhine region, along the Danube and the Eastern Garrison all recommended their candidates.Vespasian was a commanding officer who lived up to expectations.Like Caesar and Augustus, he relied on the strength of the legion to ascend to the throne.He was initially supported by the legions in Judea and Egypt, then by the Danube legions, and eventually won the throne.
Vespasian was not as profligate and ostentatious as Nero.He ordered the demolition of the "Golden House" and built a huge amphitheater in its place. So many bloody tragedies were staged in this stone theater that its ruins are still shrouded in gloom today. spectacle.Despite his generosity to the provinces, Vespasian sent his son Titus to lead a Roman army against Jerusalem during his reign due to Jewish rebellion.Vespasian died in 79 AD.
It is impossible for Trajan to list all the emperors of Rome one by one here to judge the gains and losses, but we need to pay special attention to some of them.Trajan first led the army to quell the rebellion as a commander, and then won the loyalty of the soldiers by his approachable style.Under his leadership, the frontiers of the empire expanded to the largest extent in history.He entertained the Roman masses with endless "performances".From him onwards, members of the provinces accounted for most of the seats in the Senate, and the provinces played an increasing role in Roman rule.Trajan was from Spain, and the subsequent Roman emperors were all provincials.
Hadrian Hadrian was both a soldier and a scholar, and his government brought about 20 years of stability (117-138). He slightly shrank the empire's frontiers, but strengthened its defenses.He paid attention to the beautification of Rome and the construction of the provinces.He has traveled all over the country through years of inspections.In Athens, he built the temple of Olympian Zeus; in Rome, he built many buildings, the Pantheon and his magnificent tomb are preserved to this day.
Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius was the Roman emperor from 161 to 189 AD. He was a typical man with Stoic virtues.In his 20 years in power, he has always been loyal to his duties and put an end to extravagance.He works diligently and steadily from morning to night, and lives as simple as a poor man.Both Trajan and Hadrian were influenced by Stoic philosophy. Unlike them, Marcus Aurelius studied under Antony and was a philosopher himself. He also wrote a famous book " Meditations", in which he not only expressed the spirit of the Stoics, but also expressed his deep sympathy for the people.
Unfortunately, Christians were misunderstood as neighborly neighbors and haters of the government.Therefore, when the emperors were in power, they persecuted Christians more or less, even the most benevolent emperors could not avoid it.This was especially true during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.
[-]. Late Roman Empire
Civil War and the emergence of Servilus In 192 AD, the son of Marco Aurelius was poisoned and hanged, and the Praetorian Guards of the Roman Empire and many regions such as Britain, Syria, and the Danube elected the emperor. candidate.After a brutal civil war, Septimius Severus emerged victorious, triumphantly clad in blood-stained purple robes, and emerged on the political stage as the head of the Roman world .
Servilus was born in Punic Africa, studied Latin, and was promoted by the men of Marcus Aurelius.From the commander of an army on the Danube to the military dictator of the Roman Empire.Servilus reigned for 18 years (193-211), and 12 years were spent in conquests in various parts of the East and the half-submitted British Isle.The most famous and dangerous policy of Servilus was the slaughter of the wealthy en masse, and the confiscation of their estates to be distributed to his soldiers.This policy was not new to him, but from then on it became a measure frequently used by Roman emperors.This measure has three evil effects: it kills some capable and educated people with both ability and political integrity; The prosperity of the Roman Empire was greatly damaged.
After thirty emperors Severus and his son Caracalla died one after another, the soldiers turned the Roman Empire into a battlefield for power and interests in pursuit of power and interests.If those self-proclaimed kings are not counted, in 53 years (217-270), there were thirty emperors, with an average of one appearing in less than two years. Died of murder.Aurelian was born in a peasant family on the Danube. He was extremely talented and a capable general. It took him only five years (270-275) to restore order and peace within the Roman Empire. Unite.But even so, he and his three successors did not escape the fate of being murdered.
The civil strife in Rome in the third century A.D. had four disastrous consequences: (1) civil strife continued, and the autocratic regime no longer pretended to cover it up; (2) it destroyed the consistent and effective leadership of the city of Rome throughout the empire; ( 3) It destroyed all urban development and construction throughout the empire; (4) it weakened the defenses of the Roman Empire on its frontiers, which eventually led to barbarian invasions.
The emergence of Diocletian broke the sad situation of chaos and struggle in the Roman Empire, and re-established the ruling order.Between AD 284 and 305, Diocletian became emperor of Rome. He not only restored internal order in Rome, quelled various rebellions, regained many lost territories, but also reformed the government system and institutions.He knew very well that the empire was too big to be governed by one person, so he divided the Roman Empire into four parts, and he and three other assistants governed one part respectively.One of the assistants was second only to himself in rank, and was called "Augustus," while the other two were called "Caesar."
Diocletian also reformed the army and the tax system, but he tried and failed when it came to setting prices and wages.He is a real absolute monarch, claiming to have the qualifications of the divine right of kings.However, after 21 years in power, he took the unexpected and extraordinary action of resigning from the throne and choosing to retire.
After Constantine Diocletian, the rivalry situation reappeared and continued until Constantine appeared.In 312 AD, after brutal competition, Constantine took control of the western half of the empire, then conquered the eastern region of the empire, and finally completed the unification and became the only emperor of the Roman Empire.He moved the imperial capital from Rome to the old Greek city of Byzantium.Constantine rebuilt the capital and renamed it with his own name, "Konstantinople" means "City of Constantine".Constantinople is located at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and its geographical location is very important, which is one of the reasons why Constantine chose to move his capital here.Constantine established a "New Roman City" here to reform the government of the Roman Empire.Constantine also accepted Christianity and established it as the legal religion of the Roman Empire, ending the persecution of Christians by successive Roman emperors.He is known in history as "Constantine the Great".
How Christianity became the principal religion of the empire, and how the barbarians invaded, we shall tell in the fifth book.
After Justinian in the 4th century, "one country and two emperors" has become a Roman custom.One had Constantinople as its capital in the east; the other had Rome as its capital in the west. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire gradually collapsed and ceased to exist, replaced by several barbarian kingdoms. In the 6th century, Justinian, the Roman emperor in the east, once regained the lost territory of Rome, forming a unified situation (527-565).He successively recovered Italy, Africa and the Mediterranean from the barbarians.In addition, he presided over the compilation of a great Roman law code, thus gaining an immortal reputation.
After Justinian's death, East and West Rome began to split again, and the East Rome, centered on Constantinople, had in fact become an independent Greek Empire. Before 1453, Constantinople was always able to resist all invasions and invasions.After 800 A.D., the Western Roman Empire tried to revive and unify for a while, and made some achievements in several battles against Eastern Rome.
[-]. The Great Roman World
It is called the "Great Roman World" because Rome was the first and only great power to conquer and rule the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.The Mediterranean is known as the "center of the earth", and Rome makes it more worthy of the name, truly making the Mediterranean the center of the world.
The expansion of culture in Europe Rome became the master of the Mediterranean Sea, allowing the ancient oriental culture to communicate and collide with the barbaric western culture.Because Rome conquered the Hellenistic world of the Near East, Rome spread Greek culture westward just as Alexander spread Greek culture eastward.The Roman Empire included the Punic and Carthaginian worlds, so Rome united the Hellenistic world of the Near East with southwestern Europe and the Punic world.In this way, Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain directly became the successors of ancient civilizations. Even though the subsequent barbarian aggression almost impacted the Roman system in Britain and northern Europe, it did not affect Italy, Spain, and Gaul. The Roman system of Lou (France), these three places still inherit the language and character of Rome.
With the expansion of Rome, the northern border continued to expand, so there were more places that needed to be defended. Therefore, by the time of Augustus, the problem facing Rome was not how to expand its borders, but how to occupy those natural areas that were easy to defend. boundary.From a geographical point of view, the Alps in northern Italy are an ideal natural border, but militant mountain dwellers sometimes cross this border to invade Rome and plunder, so Augustus decided to push the frontier further north. , so the frontier crossed the Alps and reached the Danube.Augustus also attempted to occupy the Germanic tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe.However, Augustus was forced to retreat to the Rhine when Arminius defeated three of Augustus's legions in the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9.
From then on, the Rhine and Danube served as the main borderline in the north until the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west.Rome built stone walls in northern Britain and other places where there were no deep sea moats.The stone wall also symbolizes the decline of the Roman Empire. As time goes by, the Roman Empire has been unable to rely on soldiers to defend against barbarian aggression. It must rely more on stone walls for passive defense. Later, even stone walls and rivers could not resist. Invasion of aliens.
On the borders of the land, behind the stone walls and the river, were fortified barracks, connected by military roads.Some important barracks contributed to the emergence and development of surrounding cities, such as Chester, Lancaster, and Doncaster in England.In Latin, the barracks are called "castra", from which "chester" and "caster" are derived.If you look carefully, the major cities on the Rhine are located on the west bank, and the major cities on the Danube are located on the south bank, and they are all on the Roman side of the border, because they used to be Roman camps .
The southern border is different from other borders. The African desert in the south is much more reliable than the stone wall. To the north are many rich Roman provinces in North Africa, and to the south are uncivilized tropical black tribes. The two are perfectly separated.
The Asian territory of Rome on the eastern border includes Asia Minor and Syria, and there is also a natural barrier-the Arabian Desert, but what Rome really conquered was only the edge of the great desert.Rome had a province called Arabia, which was the Sinai desert between Syria, Egypt, and the Red Sea.Due to frequent wars, the border lines are often moved, so although the Arabian Desert can serve as a natural barrier, in fact, there is no desert barrier on the borders of northern Syria and Asia Minor further north.
Rome occupied northern Mesopotamia for a long time and controlled Armenia as a province between the great bends of the Tigris and Euphrates, but Roman control of this place was The tenacious resistance of the Teyans and the successors of Persia.
Peace in Rome While Roman soldiers defended their country desperately on the frontier relying on natural boundaries and stone walls, Rome, on the contrary, enjoyed a long period of peace inside.If you look at the history of civil wars in Rome, you may have the opposite opinion.But if you look carefully, in fact, from the ascension of Augustus to the murder of Commodus, that is, from 29 BC to 192 AD, the Roman Empire almost maintained peace for more than two centuries. Of course, except A brief civil war from 68 to 69 AD.
Although the Pax Romano was not the result of a voluntary agreement among free peoples, but was imposed by the force of Rome, it was also a peace.Before the appearance of Rome, the Mediterranean world was always shrouded in the cloud of war.Endless wars destroy commerce and culture, and destroy not only one civilization, but the emergence of peace at this time greatly promotes the development of mankind.Peace led to the emergence and prosperity of dozens of well-developed cities in Rome.Rome spread civilization, especially the art of peace, to the world, and it also became the symbol of the pinnacle of Mediterranean classical civilization.
[-]. Government and Law
Rome's Example and Influence In addition to establishing peace, Rome made extremely significant contributions to government and law.More prominently, in ancient history, Rome set a most outstanding example for the republic.It succeeded in acquiring and governing such a vast territory.Elsewhere and earlier, notably Athens and other Greek city-states, there were civilized republics, but none rivaled Rome.
In addition to being a model of ancient history, the Roman tradition has also had a great influence on the modern republic. Even the words "republic" and "democracy" come from Latin.Another example is the selection of officials. The Roman election method was adopted by modern democratic governments, while the method of selecting officials by drawing lots, which was commonly used in Athens, was abandoned.
In addition, the emergence and formation of the Senates of modern countries was also inspired by Rome.It is worth mentioning that in the United States and France in the eighteenth century, when people formulated their constitutions, they mainly obtained the concepts and examples of the republic from Roman history.
It is undeniable that Rome not only left the tradition of republican government to the modern world, but also left it with autocratic government.It had both a senate and a mass assembly and a dictator.The honorary titles "imperator" (ancient Roman emperor) and "princeps" (leader) used by the late Roman monarchs evolved into "emperor" (emperor) and "prince" (prince) in English, which are exactly the same in form.Not only the honorary title, but also the form of the autocracy is reflected in the palace, the throne, the crown and the purple royal robe passed down from generation to generation.These imperial powers symbolize emperors and kings, who inherited the ancient autocratic regime and passed it on to modern times.
The following is a detailed account of Rome's example and influence from the administrative and legislative aspects.
Administration Rome surpassed all its predecessors in the policies governing its vast empire.These methods are extremely effective.Initially, the governor was appointed in the province, and the governor and his subordinates collected tribute without interfering with local affairs and officials.However, as time went by, the governor and his subordinates took over the local administrative affairs step by step.
Rome has become a model of administration, which is the result of its bold exploration, adaptation to national conditions and development.Wherever possible he organized the conquered peoples into fairly uniform towns and cities in form, allowing the provincial towns to be progressively upgraded with more privileges.Due to the loyalty and good behavior of the conquered, Roman citizenship was gradually extended to the entire empire.But it has always been highly centralized, initially in Rome and later in the emperor and his army.The Roman Republic was never a federation, allowing independent states to send representatives to form a federation.
The development of legislation and the growth of political institutions go hand in hand.The greatest law-makers of antiquity were the Romans.The Roman Code has had a profound impact on the modern legal system.
Most of the laws in ancient times were simple and strict, and so were the earliest laws of the Roman city-state.Around 449 BC, the earliest law of the Roman city-state was written by a committee of ten people and engraved on a 12-dollar bronze plate. This is the first legal record.These laws define crimes and penalties, and make a series of related statements about property rights, personal rights and legal procedures.
With the growth of the city, the formation of the republic, and the establishment of the empire later, and the complexity of the relationship between people, correspondingly, it has become an inevitable requirement to comprehensively expand and refine the law.The rapid growth of wealth and the prosperity of large-scale commerce required further improvement of the laws of property and commercial contracts.
At the end of the Republic and the early days of the Empire, morality in the city-state declined and family life was severely broken, which aroused greater concern and consideration for lawmakers.With the expansion of the empire and the spread of commerce, it was inevitable that the city-state would have a situation where foreigners confronted the Roman court.Dealing with these foreigners, accustomed to other types of law but not to Roman law, became a headache.Therefore, it has become an inevitable trend to set up a court in Rome to accept cases concerning foreigners.The governors of the provinces had to deal with the same problem.
Taking these circumstances into account, the final result was that the judges made their judgments partly according to Roman law and partly according to the customs of foreigners.
Laws have become more complex, with the result that different types of laws have emerged.There is no doubt that the Roman government passed laws binding on citizens, but these laws had no effect on subject peoples and foreigners.This kind of law with a limited subject has limitations, and judges often have to explain and expand it.The judge's opinion often affects the outcome of the case, and "the law made by the judge" was born.
Although most of the laws applicable to Gentiles were made by judges, this does not mean that Gentiles were considered the same as Roman citizens in the eyes of judges. Judges made laws for Roman citizens that were different from Gentiles.
The laws passed by the legislature, the laws made by the judges, and the decrees of the emperor, etc., went hand in hand and became so complicated that even the most learned jurists were baffled.The greatest wish of Julius Caesar (the emperor at the end of the Roman Republic) was to collect all laws and judgments, study them carefully, and finally boil them down into a code.Although he did not complete this grand plan, it was completed by Justinian six centuries later in the Code of Justinian.
During his tenure as supreme leader (527-565), Justinian did many amazing things, but none of them could compare with the collection, codification and interpretation of Roman law. A committee was formed to collect and compile the complicated laws and decrees of Rome, which became the "Code of Laws".
Justinian did not stop at the pace of exploration. It took three years for a committee of [-] jurists to review the opinions of important jurists and compile them by subject and article for reference. will want".At the request of Justinian, jurists compiled the "General Outline of Law" for students to use. It is a concise textbook that explains the principles of Roman law and popularizes the law.
After that, Justinian continued to promulgate new codes to amend or supplement this code.He combined the "Code", "Summary of Jurisprudence", "General Outline of Jurisprudence" and its supplements together as Justinian's "Civil Law Encyclopedia" ("Corpus Juris Civilis"), often referred to simply as "Justinian's Code".
By the time of Justinian, citizenship had been extended throughout the empire, laws had become more reasonable and humane, and the distinction between what applied to Romans and what applied to non-Romans had largely disappeared.For example, a father could no longer put his children to death, nor could a slave master put his slaves to death.There are two main factors influencing the milder and more reasonable and fair laws: one is the gradual reduction of discrimination against different ethnic groups, and the other is Stoic philosophy and Christianity.Christianity influenced many aspects of Rome, such as overhauling marriage and divorce laws.The Christian fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of men also promoted compassion and kindness for the weak and unfortunate, while hindering the introduction of slavery.As a devout believer of Christianity, Justinian can achieve such achievements, we have to admit the huge role played by Christianity.
The economic life of Rome
The expansion of trade Rome's peace and law were important guarantees of economic prosperity.It is reflected in: on the sea, ships sailing in the Mediterranean Sea can conduct trade safely without worrying about being threatened by enemy ships and pirates; on land, Roman order and laws protect the rights and interests of merchants; Some military road networks and the current frontier provinces have greatly improved the speed of product transportation; in terms of currency, Roman coins have been accepted by most countries, reducing trade friction.
The scale of Rome's trade became larger and larger, and the exported goods spread all over the world, even reaching Scandinavia, Germania, Russia, India, China, East India, Arabia and central Africa.From all over the world, Rome traded back many rare things.
The mass production and regionalization of commerce also transformed agriculture and manufacturing.Each region is trying to develop its own expertise, find its most profitable products, and focus on this, and then mass-produce and sell them in exchange for what they need.
This phenomenon is mass production and regional division of labor.For example, when foreign grains were cheaper than Italian ones, farmers would reduce their crops and specialize in more profitable wine or oil.Therefore, lamps made in Italy are exported to various countries.Some areas of Italy specialize in making bricks, others in casting iron and steel, and others in glass or bronze.Egypt not only transported daily necessities such as grain, linen, and paper from the East to Italy, but also transported exquisite and meticulous luxury goods.Spain exports olive oil and metal products.Gaul also became rich by exporting Gallic wine, pottery, wool coats, linen, safety pins and metal utensils.
Although Rome's special products were far inferior to advanced countries in the modern world in terms of product production and exchange, they were much more advanced than many countries at that time.
City The development of Roman trade and industry allowed the city to grow rapidly.The development of manufacturing and commerce, the expansion of towns, and the extension of roads are also proceeding simultaneously.New cities sprang up like magic, of which Gaul and Spain were centers of commerce and culture.The typical urban specification of Rome is square, in which there are entertainment facilities such as stadiums and theaters, public places such as libraries and bathhouses, and elegant buildings such as council halls, temples and chapels.Even private homes and apartments are beautifully built, some even with their own plumbing.
There were many wealthy merchants, bankers, and contractors in the working cities, all of whom contributed generously and were proud champions of the arts.But sometimes the working class does not benefit much from the growth of industry and the expansion of trade.Although working people can look at beautiful public buildings, sit in public theaters, use public bathhouses, and have some fun in them, the quality of life for workers is not as good as it used to be compared to wealthy people.Slaves have also become productive forces, and their masters make them work day and night for profit.The number of free workers is not small, so they have to work hard to compete with the slaves.
In the countryside, early Roman farmers worked their own small farms, while slaves worked the larger ones.Over time, small farms were gradually replaced by large farms and ranches.Farmers on small farms lost their land and had to work as sharecroppers on larger farms to make ends meet.Thus, sharecroppers took the place of slaves, and many slaves were freed.Later, sharecroppers gradually moved into cities or elsewhere, and the government legally prohibited them from leaving their farms.This coercive method forced farmers to work as tenant farmers on the same piece of land for generations, and serfs were born from this, and serfs accounted for the majority during the Roman Empire.
Tools and farming methods Farmers use fewer tools and simple methods.The plows they use can only leave a few scratches on the land, but cannot dig deep and turn the land into regular furrows at all.They harvested the grain with the sickle, and threshed it with the flail or with the tread of the ox.Handicrafts accounted for the majority of manufacturing industries. Even though the Romans invented machines, they were not taken seriously.It is said that an inventor invented some kind of machine and dedicated it to Emperor Vespasian at that time, but the emperor thought that this invention would make many people unemployed, so he put the machine aside.
Family style and decline In the early Roman Empire, industry and trade were rarely disturbed by the government.Over time, the emperor and his officials gradually increased their control over the economy.
From the 3rd to the 5th centuries AD, the Roman economy gradually declined, the fertility of the land was not as good as before, and the taxes on farmers became heavier and heavier.Instead of benefiting farmers, government management made their lives more difficult.Serfdom oppressed the lives of the people, and civil strife often occurred.
[-]. Greco-Roman culture
The era of Augustus' reign became the "golden age" of Roman literature, and his successor rulers continued it.During the two centuries of the Roman Empire, works of fine art brilliantly demonstrated the peace and development within Rome.The rulers spent a lot of money and time to promote the development of art.There were unprecedented masterpieces of architecture, sculpture and painting, and not so many left in previous centuries.No other empire can match Rome.
Roman art was largely a continuation and development of Hellenistic art, with most works by Greek and other Near Eastern artists.The art of the Near East spread to a wider area only through Rome.But the Roman artists were not all imitators, and when they imitated they outdid to some extent the objects they imitated.Especially in terms of architecture, the Romans had a unique talent for architecture.
Arches and domed arches were not invented by the Romans, they learned from the Etruscans and carried them forward.The Romans employed arches in aqueduct and bridge construction for both beauty and function.Buildings like the Colosseum, they used repeating arches, adopted Greek columns, and even the entrances were arched.The arched triumphal arch commemorates the exploits of the emperors, and there are three other such triumphal arches in and around the Roman Forum, commemorating Titus, Septimius Severus and Constantine the Great.
Of course, domes and arches are built on the same principle.The dome was used by the Romans as the roof of a huge public building, so that the interior space of the entire building did not have to be supported by columns.However, when building a dome or an arch, a temporary support is needed. The support can be removed after the building is roughly completed, such as when the stones of the arch are all embedded and removed or the cement of the dome is solidified.At this time, the arch or dome still exists independently and becomes a gorgeous and majestic building.The Pantheon built by Hadrian is one of the largest domes in the world.The Hagia Sophia built by Justinian in Constantinople, with its towering arches and huge dome, is considered the most magnificent and magnificent domed building.
Books and Education Rome achieved greatness and greatness through peaceful means in literature and art.In the five centuries after Augustus, Rome produced a prodigious number of books.What we call books or books refers to long paper made from strips of papyrus and then rolled into a cylinder-like shape.Sometimes, however, sheepskin (dried sheepskin) was used instead of papyrus to make scrolls.Since people at that time had not yet mastered printing, all books were written by hand or copied carefully.
Primary schools were found throughout the Roman Empire, and there were schools in every town, but only the larger cities could afford to hire professors who taught the aspiring and potential youth the arts of rhetoric, speech, writing, and debate .The wealthy sent their children and grandchildren to Rome or Athens, where there were higher-level schools that gave the equivalent of a university education.In Rome or Athens, the number of teachers and students is very large.At the time, Latin was not the only language spoken in the Roman Empire.In Syria, another language is spoken, called Aramaic, which is a Semitic language.The people in Egypt speak the local (Coptic) dialect of Egypt.Greek was commonly spoken in all of Rome's eastern provinces, but in most of the west it was spoken only by people of high rank.At the same time, most of the books that appeared in the eastern part of the empire were written in Greek, while those in the western part of the empire were written in Latin.
Great writers here will mention some famous writers whose works reflect the whole picture of Roman literature, which is enough to prove how rich and colorful the Roman Empire’s literary genres are and how broad the scope of literary creation is.Plutarch (46-120), he was a Greek teacher during the reign of Emperor Hadrian and also served as an official in the government. His most famous works are a series of biographies, which are still widely circulated today, such as "Biography of Celebrities" and so on.Emperor Marcus Aurelius expounded Stoic philosophy in his book "Meditations", providing a classic philosophical work to the world.Galen, a contemporary of Marco Aurelius, was born in Pergamum and lived in Rome all his life. He traveled around, visited many places, and wrote many books on logic, ethics, grammar and rhetoric and other types , including his most famous works on anatomy and medicine.
Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek, but he was born in Egypt. In the 2nd century AD, he wrote a great work on the study of astronomy and summarized the laws of trigonometry in detail.His ideas about the earth, sun, and other celestial bodies remained popular in Europe well into the 16th century.He also wrote a famous book on geography and drew his own famous map of the world when he believed the world was as he drew it.
Quintilian was born in Spain around AD 35. His works were all about oratory and pedagogy, mostly written in Latin, and were favored by the two Roman emperors, Vespasian and Domitian.Both emperors had praised Quintilian, thus establishing his academic status.The famous scholar Seneca was also born in Spain. It is generally believed that the "Silver Age" of Latin literature followed the "Golden Age" of Augustus, and Seneca was the most outstanding writer of the Silver Age.Seneca's writings are rich and cover a wide range of disciplines, the best of which are on moral philosophy.In addition, he was the personal teacher of Emperor Nero and a royal advisor. However, as Seneca's status gradually rose, his wealth continued to increase, and his influence also expanded, which aroused Nero's jealousy. In the end, Nero actually forced Seneca suicide.
There was another writer in the "Silver Age" named Pliny, whom we call Pliny the Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew, Pliny the Younger, who was also a famous person.Pliny the Elder once wrote a great book, "Natural History", which covered botany, geography, agronomy and many other subjects.In order to collect all kinds of materials needed to write this book, he consulted about [-] books.He uses Latin to integrate Greek culture, Hellenistic scholarship, and Roman knowledge into one, which is very readable.
At the beginning of the second century AD, there was Juvenal, a sharp Latin poet, and Tacitus, a moving historian, who described the Romans and Germans and the Romans' conquest of Britain. history.
The decline of classical literature In the last few centuries of the Roman Empire, non-Christian writers were very rare, and famous writers were even rarer. Especially from the 3rd century to the 6th century AD, the best literary works and the most charming artistic works in Rome came from The Hands of a Christian Writer. The Bible (the New Testament) was a great work in the 1st century AD. Later, Augustine of Hippo wrote many outstanding works, incorporating his profound knowledge into the works and making great contributions to world literature.Then there is Eusebius, whose history is excellent, fascinating and instructive.Christian priests also wrote many books.
(End of this chapter)
The successors of Augustus
Hereditary Monarchy Although Augustus strictly adhered to the old customs of the Roman Republic, where the ruler did not have a throne or crown, the country he bequeathed to his descendants was actually a hereditary monarchy.The Republic was considered to be essentially an empire, and Augustus was later called Emperor, or "Führer", meaning "ruler".In addition, in this country, the emperor is not jointly elected by the elders and the common people assembly, but the emperor himself chooses the successor among the members of the royal family-his son or adopted son.
This hereditary monarchy lasted until AD 68 through Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero.
The rulers after Augustus were not as careful to conceal the de facto despotism as he was.They are often elected for life in rigged elections.At the same time, the power of the People's Assembly was completely suspended, and for the officials nominated by the emperor and the proposed laws, the Senate only retained the form of voting, and in fact it was unable to control the government.The emperor has mastered the most important departments of the three governments: army, finance, and public works.
Bread and Circus Although part of the fiscal revenue of the empire was used for the luxurious life of the royal family, in order to gain prestige and the loyalty of the people, the emperors also tried their best to meet the people's requirements for "bread and circus", that is, part of the fiscal revenue was used to subsidize the citizens food and recreational activities.They distributed free grain from Egypt to the proletarians of Rome.During festivals, the streets of Rome are filled with crowds, parades in the streets, performances in theaters, chariot races in circuses, and fighting and fighting in arenas, which make people applaud.It is horrifying that the favorite pastime of the people is to watch man-to-man fights and brutal fights between men and lions and leopards, and they are completely indifferent to the killing and bloodshed.Another part of the finances was used to support the army loyal to the royal family and build public works.
Public Buildings and Palaces In addition to public entertainment, the emperors did not hesitate to spend on public construction.Build magnificent broad stone roads and blocks in Rome and the cities of other provinces, build marble temples and forums, and build stone aqueducts to supply Rome with more water.In 64 AD, the great fire in Rome destroyed most of the city. Nero, the ruler at that time, presided over the reconstruction of straight and wide avenues, and replaced the old wooden sheds with solid houses.A large park was opened in the place destroyed by the fire, and the famous "Golden House" was built in the park, which was a huge palace made of stone and marble.For public entertainment, he publicly burned Christians accused of being arsonists as torches.
Although Augustus, like the chief nobleman in Rome, tried not to be pompous or prominent in his life.But his successors imitated the eastern emperor one after another, lived a life of luxury, and were extremely proud.Among them, Caius and Nero, even imitating the king of Egypt, insisted on being worshiped as gods.
Tyrants and Reigns of Terror The word "tyrant" comes from Greek, and its original meaning was only to refer to a ruler who used violence to rule. Later, it was also used to refer to a despotic and bloodthirsty ruler.In both senses, many of Rome's dictators or emperors were tyrants.A ruler who relies on violence to maintain his position is always suspicious and apprehensive about threats to his power.
The four emperors after Augustus, no matter how pompous and conceited they were, were not absolutely sure of their throne or even their lives.Therefore, they had to visit the army to obtain the support of the Guards soldiers.Then rely on this select team to put pressure on the elders and the populace.This guard army also became a sharp weapon for the emperors to wipe out their opponents.But another question arose that frightened the emperors: what if the Guards rebelled?
There is no doubt that this kind of suspicious psychology is inextricably linked to the indulgent drinking and bloody cruelty at that time.This kind of psychology can make it easier for us to understand why the four emperors after Augustus are considered bloodthirsty tyrants and monsters.
Tiberius was a hard-working, middle-aged general who was not cruel in the early days of his succession.But as his power expanded, he killed many people who were suspected of being a threat to him, which earned him the title of "tyrant".Caius was a young man of twenty-five, popular at first, but his four years as emperor had made him profligate and cruel.His nickname "Caligula," or "Little Army Boots," is better known than his inhuman notoriety, because as a child he liked to walk about in a pair of army boots, pretending to be.When Claudius was in power, he was a bookish middle-aged man, but he wanted to conquer Great Britain, which Julius Caesar had visited.Nero was originally a 25-year-old boy who loved poetry, painting and music, and was also a good student of the philosopher Seneca, but he soon indulged in alcoholism, murder and licentiousness.These people always accuse others of crimes, but they also commit the same mistakes and crimes.
Within a year of 68-69, Caligula was murdered, Claudius was poisoned, and Nero was forced to commit suicide to avoid being assassinated.Three emperors rose and fell one after another. In the end, two were killed, one committed suicide, and then Vespasian from the local province took over.
One flaw with the monarchy founded by Vespasian Augustus was that it was too Roman.The provinces and the legions stationed on the frontier felt that they had more say in the emperor's choice.After Nero's death, Spain, Gaul, the Rhine region, along the Danube and the Eastern Garrison all recommended their candidates.Vespasian was a commanding officer who lived up to expectations.Like Caesar and Augustus, he relied on the strength of the legion to ascend to the throne.He was initially supported by the legions in Judea and Egypt, then by the Danube legions, and eventually won the throne.
Vespasian was not as profligate and ostentatious as Nero.He ordered the demolition of the "Golden House" and built a huge amphitheater in its place. So many bloody tragedies were staged in this stone theater that its ruins are still shrouded in gloom today. spectacle.Despite his generosity to the provinces, Vespasian sent his son Titus to lead a Roman army against Jerusalem during his reign due to Jewish rebellion.Vespasian died in 79 AD.
It is impossible for Trajan to list all the emperors of Rome one by one here to judge the gains and losses, but we need to pay special attention to some of them.Trajan first led the army to quell the rebellion as a commander, and then won the loyalty of the soldiers by his approachable style.Under his leadership, the frontiers of the empire expanded to the largest extent in history.He entertained the Roman masses with endless "performances".From him onwards, members of the provinces accounted for most of the seats in the Senate, and the provinces played an increasing role in Roman rule.Trajan was from Spain, and the subsequent Roman emperors were all provincials.
Hadrian Hadrian was both a soldier and a scholar, and his government brought about 20 years of stability (117-138). He slightly shrank the empire's frontiers, but strengthened its defenses.He paid attention to the beautification of Rome and the construction of the provinces.He has traveled all over the country through years of inspections.In Athens, he built the temple of Olympian Zeus; in Rome, he built many buildings, the Pantheon and his magnificent tomb are preserved to this day.
Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius was the Roman emperor from 161 to 189 AD. He was a typical man with Stoic virtues.In his 20 years in power, he has always been loyal to his duties and put an end to extravagance.He works diligently and steadily from morning to night, and lives as simple as a poor man.Both Trajan and Hadrian were influenced by Stoic philosophy. Unlike them, Marcus Aurelius studied under Antony and was a philosopher himself. He also wrote a famous book " Meditations", in which he not only expressed the spirit of the Stoics, but also expressed his deep sympathy for the people.
Unfortunately, Christians were misunderstood as neighborly neighbors and haters of the government.Therefore, when the emperors were in power, they persecuted Christians more or less, even the most benevolent emperors could not avoid it.This was especially true during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.
[-]. Late Roman Empire
Civil War and the emergence of Servilus In 192 AD, the son of Marco Aurelius was poisoned and hanged, and the Praetorian Guards of the Roman Empire and many regions such as Britain, Syria, and the Danube elected the emperor. candidate.After a brutal civil war, Septimius Severus emerged victorious, triumphantly clad in blood-stained purple robes, and emerged on the political stage as the head of the Roman world .
Servilus was born in Punic Africa, studied Latin, and was promoted by the men of Marcus Aurelius.From the commander of an army on the Danube to the military dictator of the Roman Empire.Servilus reigned for 18 years (193-211), and 12 years were spent in conquests in various parts of the East and the half-submitted British Isle.The most famous and dangerous policy of Servilus was the slaughter of the wealthy en masse, and the confiscation of their estates to be distributed to his soldiers.This policy was not new to him, but from then on it became a measure frequently used by Roman emperors.This measure has three evil effects: it kills some capable and educated people with both ability and political integrity; The prosperity of the Roman Empire was greatly damaged.
After thirty emperors Severus and his son Caracalla died one after another, the soldiers turned the Roman Empire into a battlefield for power and interests in pursuit of power and interests.If those self-proclaimed kings are not counted, in 53 years (217-270), there were thirty emperors, with an average of one appearing in less than two years. Died of murder.Aurelian was born in a peasant family on the Danube. He was extremely talented and a capable general. It took him only five years (270-275) to restore order and peace within the Roman Empire. Unite.But even so, he and his three successors did not escape the fate of being murdered.
The civil strife in Rome in the third century A.D. had four disastrous consequences: (1) civil strife continued, and the autocratic regime no longer pretended to cover it up; (2) it destroyed the consistent and effective leadership of the city of Rome throughout the empire; ( 3) It destroyed all urban development and construction throughout the empire; (4) it weakened the defenses of the Roman Empire on its frontiers, which eventually led to barbarian invasions.
The emergence of Diocletian broke the sad situation of chaos and struggle in the Roman Empire, and re-established the ruling order.Between AD 284 and 305, Diocletian became emperor of Rome. He not only restored internal order in Rome, quelled various rebellions, regained many lost territories, but also reformed the government system and institutions.He knew very well that the empire was too big to be governed by one person, so he divided the Roman Empire into four parts, and he and three other assistants governed one part respectively.One of the assistants was second only to himself in rank, and was called "Augustus," while the other two were called "Caesar."
Diocletian also reformed the army and the tax system, but he tried and failed when it came to setting prices and wages.He is a real absolute monarch, claiming to have the qualifications of the divine right of kings.However, after 21 years in power, he took the unexpected and extraordinary action of resigning from the throne and choosing to retire.
After Constantine Diocletian, the rivalry situation reappeared and continued until Constantine appeared.In 312 AD, after brutal competition, Constantine took control of the western half of the empire, then conquered the eastern region of the empire, and finally completed the unification and became the only emperor of the Roman Empire.He moved the imperial capital from Rome to the old Greek city of Byzantium.Constantine rebuilt the capital and renamed it with his own name, "Konstantinople" means "City of Constantine".Constantinople is located at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, and its geographical location is very important, which is one of the reasons why Constantine chose to move his capital here.Constantine established a "New Roman City" here to reform the government of the Roman Empire.Constantine also accepted Christianity and established it as the legal religion of the Roman Empire, ending the persecution of Christians by successive Roman emperors.He is known in history as "Constantine the Great".
How Christianity became the principal religion of the empire, and how the barbarians invaded, we shall tell in the fifth book.
After Justinian in the 4th century, "one country and two emperors" has become a Roman custom.One had Constantinople as its capital in the east; the other had Rome as its capital in the west. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire gradually collapsed and ceased to exist, replaced by several barbarian kingdoms. In the 6th century, Justinian, the Roman emperor in the east, once regained the lost territory of Rome, forming a unified situation (527-565).He successively recovered Italy, Africa and the Mediterranean from the barbarians.In addition, he presided over the compilation of a great Roman law code, thus gaining an immortal reputation.
After Justinian's death, East and West Rome began to split again, and the East Rome, centered on Constantinople, had in fact become an independent Greek Empire. Before 1453, Constantinople was always able to resist all invasions and invasions.After 800 A.D., the Western Roman Empire tried to revive and unify for a while, and made some achievements in several battles against Eastern Rome.
[-]. The Great Roman World
It is called the "Great Roman World" because Rome was the first and only great power to conquer and rule the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.The Mediterranean is known as the "center of the earth", and Rome makes it more worthy of the name, truly making the Mediterranean the center of the world.
The expansion of culture in Europe Rome became the master of the Mediterranean Sea, allowing the ancient oriental culture to communicate and collide with the barbaric western culture.Because Rome conquered the Hellenistic world of the Near East, Rome spread Greek culture westward just as Alexander spread Greek culture eastward.The Roman Empire included the Punic and Carthaginian worlds, so Rome united the Hellenistic world of the Near East with southwestern Europe and the Punic world.In this way, Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain directly became the successors of ancient civilizations. Even though the subsequent barbarian aggression almost impacted the Roman system in Britain and northern Europe, it did not affect Italy, Spain, and Gaul. The Roman system of Lou (France), these three places still inherit the language and character of Rome.
With the expansion of Rome, the northern border continued to expand, so there were more places that needed to be defended. Therefore, by the time of Augustus, the problem facing Rome was not how to expand its borders, but how to occupy those natural areas that were easy to defend. boundary.From a geographical point of view, the Alps in northern Italy are an ideal natural border, but militant mountain dwellers sometimes cross this border to invade Rome and plunder, so Augustus decided to push the frontier further north. , so the frontier crossed the Alps and reached the Danube.Augustus also attempted to occupy the Germanic tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe.However, Augustus was forced to retreat to the Rhine when Arminius defeated three of Augustus's legions in the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9.
From then on, the Rhine and Danube served as the main borderline in the north until the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west.Rome built stone walls in northern Britain and other places where there were no deep sea moats.The stone wall also symbolizes the decline of the Roman Empire. As time goes by, the Roman Empire has been unable to rely on soldiers to defend against barbarian aggression. It must rely more on stone walls for passive defense. Later, even stone walls and rivers could not resist. Invasion of aliens.
On the borders of the land, behind the stone walls and the river, were fortified barracks, connected by military roads.Some important barracks contributed to the emergence and development of surrounding cities, such as Chester, Lancaster, and Doncaster in England.In Latin, the barracks are called "castra", from which "chester" and "caster" are derived.If you look carefully, the major cities on the Rhine are located on the west bank, and the major cities on the Danube are located on the south bank, and they are all on the Roman side of the border, because they used to be Roman camps .
The southern border is different from other borders. The African desert in the south is much more reliable than the stone wall. To the north are many rich Roman provinces in North Africa, and to the south are uncivilized tropical black tribes. The two are perfectly separated.
The Asian territory of Rome on the eastern border includes Asia Minor and Syria, and there is also a natural barrier-the Arabian Desert, but what Rome really conquered was only the edge of the great desert.Rome had a province called Arabia, which was the Sinai desert between Syria, Egypt, and the Red Sea.Due to frequent wars, the border lines are often moved, so although the Arabian Desert can serve as a natural barrier, in fact, there is no desert barrier on the borders of northern Syria and Asia Minor further north.
Rome occupied northern Mesopotamia for a long time and controlled Armenia as a province between the great bends of the Tigris and Euphrates, but Roman control of this place was The tenacious resistance of the Teyans and the successors of Persia.
Peace in Rome While Roman soldiers defended their country desperately on the frontier relying on natural boundaries and stone walls, Rome, on the contrary, enjoyed a long period of peace inside.If you look at the history of civil wars in Rome, you may have the opposite opinion.But if you look carefully, in fact, from the ascension of Augustus to the murder of Commodus, that is, from 29 BC to 192 AD, the Roman Empire almost maintained peace for more than two centuries. Of course, except A brief civil war from 68 to 69 AD.
Although the Pax Romano was not the result of a voluntary agreement among free peoples, but was imposed by the force of Rome, it was also a peace.Before the appearance of Rome, the Mediterranean world was always shrouded in the cloud of war.Endless wars destroy commerce and culture, and destroy not only one civilization, but the emergence of peace at this time greatly promotes the development of mankind.Peace led to the emergence and prosperity of dozens of well-developed cities in Rome.Rome spread civilization, especially the art of peace, to the world, and it also became the symbol of the pinnacle of Mediterranean classical civilization.
[-]. Government and Law
Rome's Example and Influence In addition to establishing peace, Rome made extremely significant contributions to government and law.More prominently, in ancient history, Rome set a most outstanding example for the republic.It succeeded in acquiring and governing such a vast territory.Elsewhere and earlier, notably Athens and other Greek city-states, there were civilized republics, but none rivaled Rome.
In addition to being a model of ancient history, the Roman tradition has also had a great influence on the modern republic. Even the words "republic" and "democracy" come from Latin.Another example is the selection of officials. The Roman election method was adopted by modern democratic governments, while the method of selecting officials by drawing lots, which was commonly used in Athens, was abandoned.
In addition, the emergence and formation of the Senates of modern countries was also inspired by Rome.It is worth mentioning that in the United States and France in the eighteenth century, when people formulated their constitutions, they mainly obtained the concepts and examples of the republic from Roman history.
It is undeniable that Rome not only left the tradition of republican government to the modern world, but also left it with autocratic government.It had both a senate and a mass assembly and a dictator.The honorary titles "imperator" (ancient Roman emperor) and "princeps" (leader) used by the late Roman monarchs evolved into "emperor" (emperor) and "prince" (prince) in English, which are exactly the same in form.Not only the honorary title, but also the form of the autocracy is reflected in the palace, the throne, the crown and the purple royal robe passed down from generation to generation.These imperial powers symbolize emperors and kings, who inherited the ancient autocratic regime and passed it on to modern times.
The following is a detailed account of Rome's example and influence from the administrative and legislative aspects.
Administration Rome surpassed all its predecessors in the policies governing its vast empire.These methods are extremely effective.Initially, the governor was appointed in the province, and the governor and his subordinates collected tribute without interfering with local affairs and officials.However, as time went by, the governor and his subordinates took over the local administrative affairs step by step.
Rome has become a model of administration, which is the result of its bold exploration, adaptation to national conditions and development.Wherever possible he organized the conquered peoples into fairly uniform towns and cities in form, allowing the provincial towns to be progressively upgraded with more privileges.Due to the loyalty and good behavior of the conquered, Roman citizenship was gradually extended to the entire empire.But it has always been highly centralized, initially in Rome and later in the emperor and his army.The Roman Republic was never a federation, allowing independent states to send representatives to form a federation.
The development of legislation and the growth of political institutions go hand in hand.The greatest law-makers of antiquity were the Romans.The Roman Code has had a profound impact on the modern legal system.
Most of the laws in ancient times were simple and strict, and so were the earliest laws of the Roman city-state.Around 449 BC, the earliest law of the Roman city-state was written by a committee of ten people and engraved on a 12-dollar bronze plate. This is the first legal record.These laws define crimes and penalties, and make a series of related statements about property rights, personal rights and legal procedures.
With the growth of the city, the formation of the republic, and the establishment of the empire later, and the complexity of the relationship between people, correspondingly, it has become an inevitable requirement to comprehensively expand and refine the law.The rapid growth of wealth and the prosperity of large-scale commerce required further improvement of the laws of property and commercial contracts.
At the end of the Republic and the early days of the Empire, morality in the city-state declined and family life was severely broken, which aroused greater concern and consideration for lawmakers.With the expansion of the empire and the spread of commerce, it was inevitable that the city-state would have a situation where foreigners confronted the Roman court.Dealing with these foreigners, accustomed to other types of law but not to Roman law, became a headache.Therefore, it has become an inevitable trend to set up a court in Rome to accept cases concerning foreigners.The governors of the provinces had to deal with the same problem.
Taking these circumstances into account, the final result was that the judges made their judgments partly according to Roman law and partly according to the customs of foreigners.
Laws have become more complex, with the result that different types of laws have emerged.There is no doubt that the Roman government passed laws binding on citizens, but these laws had no effect on subject peoples and foreigners.This kind of law with a limited subject has limitations, and judges often have to explain and expand it.The judge's opinion often affects the outcome of the case, and "the law made by the judge" was born.
Although most of the laws applicable to Gentiles were made by judges, this does not mean that Gentiles were considered the same as Roman citizens in the eyes of judges. Judges made laws for Roman citizens that were different from Gentiles.
The laws passed by the legislature, the laws made by the judges, and the decrees of the emperor, etc., went hand in hand and became so complicated that even the most learned jurists were baffled.The greatest wish of Julius Caesar (the emperor at the end of the Roman Republic) was to collect all laws and judgments, study them carefully, and finally boil them down into a code.Although he did not complete this grand plan, it was completed by Justinian six centuries later in the Code of Justinian.
During his tenure as supreme leader (527-565), Justinian did many amazing things, but none of them could compare with the collection, codification and interpretation of Roman law. A committee was formed to collect and compile the complicated laws and decrees of Rome, which became the "Code of Laws".
Justinian did not stop at the pace of exploration. It took three years for a committee of [-] jurists to review the opinions of important jurists and compile them by subject and article for reference. will want".At the request of Justinian, jurists compiled the "General Outline of Law" for students to use. It is a concise textbook that explains the principles of Roman law and popularizes the law.
After that, Justinian continued to promulgate new codes to amend or supplement this code.He combined the "Code", "Summary of Jurisprudence", "General Outline of Jurisprudence" and its supplements together as Justinian's "Civil Law Encyclopedia" ("Corpus Juris Civilis"), often referred to simply as "Justinian's Code".
By the time of Justinian, citizenship had been extended throughout the empire, laws had become more reasonable and humane, and the distinction between what applied to Romans and what applied to non-Romans had largely disappeared.For example, a father could no longer put his children to death, nor could a slave master put his slaves to death.There are two main factors influencing the milder and more reasonable and fair laws: one is the gradual reduction of discrimination against different ethnic groups, and the other is Stoic philosophy and Christianity.Christianity influenced many aspects of Rome, such as overhauling marriage and divorce laws.The Christian fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of men also promoted compassion and kindness for the weak and unfortunate, while hindering the introduction of slavery.As a devout believer of Christianity, Justinian can achieve such achievements, we have to admit the huge role played by Christianity.
The economic life of Rome
The expansion of trade Rome's peace and law were important guarantees of economic prosperity.It is reflected in: on the sea, ships sailing in the Mediterranean Sea can conduct trade safely without worrying about being threatened by enemy ships and pirates; on land, Roman order and laws protect the rights and interests of merchants; Some military road networks and the current frontier provinces have greatly improved the speed of product transportation; in terms of currency, Roman coins have been accepted by most countries, reducing trade friction.
The scale of Rome's trade became larger and larger, and the exported goods spread all over the world, even reaching Scandinavia, Germania, Russia, India, China, East India, Arabia and central Africa.From all over the world, Rome traded back many rare things.
The mass production and regionalization of commerce also transformed agriculture and manufacturing.Each region is trying to develop its own expertise, find its most profitable products, and focus on this, and then mass-produce and sell them in exchange for what they need.
This phenomenon is mass production and regional division of labor.For example, when foreign grains were cheaper than Italian ones, farmers would reduce their crops and specialize in more profitable wine or oil.Therefore, lamps made in Italy are exported to various countries.Some areas of Italy specialize in making bricks, others in casting iron and steel, and others in glass or bronze.Egypt not only transported daily necessities such as grain, linen, and paper from the East to Italy, but also transported exquisite and meticulous luxury goods.Spain exports olive oil and metal products.Gaul also became rich by exporting Gallic wine, pottery, wool coats, linen, safety pins and metal utensils.
Although Rome's special products were far inferior to advanced countries in the modern world in terms of product production and exchange, they were much more advanced than many countries at that time.
City The development of Roman trade and industry allowed the city to grow rapidly.The development of manufacturing and commerce, the expansion of towns, and the extension of roads are also proceeding simultaneously.New cities sprang up like magic, of which Gaul and Spain were centers of commerce and culture.The typical urban specification of Rome is square, in which there are entertainment facilities such as stadiums and theaters, public places such as libraries and bathhouses, and elegant buildings such as council halls, temples and chapels.Even private homes and apartments are beautifully built, some even with their own plumbing.
There were many wealthy merchants, bankers, and contractors in the working cities, all of whom contributed generously and were proud champions of the arts.But sometimes the working class does not benefit much from the growth of industry and the expansion of trade.Although working people can look at beautiful public buildings, sit in public theaters, use public bathhouses, and have some fun in them, the quality of life for workers is not as good as it used to be compared to wealthy people.Slaves have also become productive forces, and their masters make them work day and night for profit.The number of free workers is not small, so they have to work hard to compete with the slaves.
In the countryside, early Roman farmers worked their own small farms, while slaves worked the larger ones.Over time, small farms were gradually replaced by large farms and ranches.Farmers on small farms lost their land and had to work as sharecroppers on larger farms to make ends meet.Thus, sharecroppers took the place of slaves, and many slaves were freed.Later, sharecroppers gradually moved into cities or elsewhere, and the government legally prohibited them from leaving their farms.This coercive method forced farmers to work as tenant farmers on the same piece of land for generations, and serfs were born from this, and serfs accounted for the majority during the Roman Empire.
Tools and farming methods Farmers use fewer tools and simple methods.The plows they use can only leave a few scratches on the land, but cannot dig deep and turn the land into regular furrows at all.They harvested the grain with the sickle, and threshed it with the flail or with the tread of the ox.Handicrafts accounted for the majority of manufacturing industries. Even though the Romans invented machines, they were not taken seriously.It is said that an inventor invented some kind of machine and dedicated it to Emperor Vespasian at that time, but the emperor thought that this invention would make many people unemployed, so he put the machine aside.
Family style and decline In the early Roman Empire, industry and trade were rarely disturbed by the government.Over time, the emperor and his officials gradually increased their control over the economy.
From the 3rd to the 5th centuries AD, the Roman economy gradually declined, the fertility of the land was not as good as before, and the taxes on farmers became heavier and heavier.Instead of benefiting farmers, government management made their lives more difficult.Serfdom oppressed the lives of the people, and civil strife often occurred.
[-]. Greco-Roman culture
The era of Augustus' reign became the "golden age" of Roman literature, and his successor rulers continued it.During the two centuries of the Roman Empire, works of fine art brilliantly demonstrated the peace and development within Rome.The rulers spent a lot of money and time to promote the development of art.There were unprecedented masterpieces of architecture, sculpture and painting, and not so many left in previous centuries.No other empire can match Rome.
Roman art was largely a continuation and development of Hellenistic art, with most works by Greek and other Near Eastern artists.The art of the Near East spread to a wider area only through Rome.But the Roman artists were not all imitators, and when they imitated they outdid to some extent the objects they imitated.Especially in terms of architecture, the Romans had a unique talent for architecture.
Arches and domed arches were not invented by the Romans, they learned from the Etruscans and carried them forward.The Romans employed arches in aqueduct and bridge construction for both beauty and function.Buildings like the Colosseum, they used repeating arches, adopted Greek columns, and even the entrances were arched.The arched triumphal arch commemorates the exploits of the emperors, and there are three other such triumphal arches in and around the Roman Forum, commemorating Titus, Septimius Severus and Constantine the Great.
Of course, domes and arches are built on the same principle.The dome was used by the Romans as the roof of a huge public building, so that the interior space of the entire building did not have to be supported by columns.However, when building a dome or an arch, a temporary support is needed. The support can be removed after the building is roughly completed, such as when the stones of the arch are all embedded and removed or the cement of the dome is solidified.At this time, the arch or dome still exists independently and becomes a gorgeous and majestic building.The Pantheon built by Hadrian is one of the largest domes in the world.The Hagia Sophia built by Justinian in Constantinople, with its towering arches and huge dome, is considered the most magnificent and magnificent domed building.
Books and Education Rome achieved greatness and greatness through peaceful means in literature and art.In the five centuries after Augustus, Rome produced a prodigious number of books.What we call books or books refers to long paper made from strips of papyrus and then rolled into a cylinder-like shape.Sometimes, however, sheepskin (dried sheepskin) was used instead of papyrus to make scrolls.Since people at that time had not yet mastered printing, all books were written by hand or copied carefully.
Primary schools were found throughout the Roman Empire, and there were schools in every town, but only the larger cities could afford to hire professors who taught the aspiring and potential youth the arts of rhetoric, speech, writing, and debate .The wealthy sent their children and grandchildren to Rome or Athens, where there were higher-level schools that gave the equivalent of a university education.In Rome or Athens, the number of teachers and students is very large.At the time, Latin was not the only language spoken in the Roman Empire.In Syria, another language is spoken, called Aramaic, which is a Semitic language.The people in Egypt speak the local (Coptic) dialect of Egypt.Greek was commonly spoken in all of Rome's eastern provinces, but in most of the west it was spoken only by people of high rank.At the same time, most of the books that appeared in the eastern part of the empire were written in Greek, while those in the western part of the empire were written in Latin.
Great writers here will mention some famous writers whose works reflect the whole picture of Roman literature, which is enough to prove how rich and colorful the Roman Empire’s literary genres are and how broad the scope of literary creation is.Plutarch (46-120), he was a Greek teacher during the reign of Emperor Hadrian and also served as an official in the government. His most famous works are a series of biographies, which are still widely circulated today, such as "Biography of Celebrities" and so on.Emperor Marcus Aurelius expounded Stoic philosophy in his book "Meditations", providing a classic philosophical work to the world.Galen, a contemporary of Marco Aurelius, was born in Pergamum and lived in Rome all his life. He traveled around, visited many places, and wrote many books on logic, ethics, grammar and rhetoric and other types , including his most famous works on anatomy and medicine.
Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek, but he was born in Egypt. In the 2nd century AD, he wrote a great work on the study of astronomy and summarized the laws of trigonometry in detail.His ideas about the earth, sun, and other celestial bodies remained popular in Europe well into the 16th century.He also wrote a famous book on geography and drew his own famous map of the world when he believed the world was as he drew it.
Quintilian was born in Spain around AD 35. His works were all about oratory and pedagogy, mostly written in Latin, and were favored by the two Roman emperors, Vespasian and Domitian.Both emperors had praised Quintilian, thus establishing his academic status.The famous scholar Seneca was also born in Spain. It is generally believed that the "Silver Age" of Latin literature followed the "Golden Age" of Augustus, and Seneca was the most outstanding writer of the Silver Age.Seneca's writings are rich and cover a wide range of disciplines, the best of which are on moral philosophy.In addition, he was the personal teacher of Emperor Nero and a royal advisor. However, as Seneca's status gradually rose, his wealth continued to increase, and his influence also expanded, which aroused Nero's jealousy. In the end, Nero actually forced Seneca suicide.
There was another writer in the "Silver Age" named Pliny, whom we call Pliny the Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew, Pliny the Younger, who was also a famous person.Pliny the Elder once wrote a great book, "Natural History", which covered botany, geography, agronomy and many other subjects.In order to collect all kinds of materials needed to write this book, he consulted about [-] books.He uses Latin to integrate Greek culture, Hellenistic scholarship, and Roman knowledge into one, which is very readable.
At the beginning of the second century AD, there was Juvenal, a sharp Latin poet, and Tacitus, a moving historian, who described the Romans and Germans and the Romans' conquest of Britain. history.
The decline of classical literature In the last few centuries of the Roman Empire, non-Christian writers were very rare, and famous writers were even rarer. Especially from the 3rd century to the 6th century AD, the best literary works and the most charming artistic works in Rome came from The Hands of a Christian Writer. The Bible (the New Testament) was a great work in the 1st century AD. Later, Augustine of Hippo wrote many outstanding works, incorporating his profound knowledge into the works and making great contributions to world literature.Then there is Eusebius, whose history is excellent, fascinating and instructive.Christian priests also wrote many books.
(End of this chapter)
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