A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century
Chapter 28 The French Revolution
Chapter 28 The French Revolution
The French Revolution that broke out in 1789 was an uprising of the French people against the autocratic system and aristocratic politics.Because one change begets another over a period of more than 20 years, it is difficult to say when it ended; likewise, how it ended is difficult to say, because the freedom expected by the revolution did not come quickly.Although the aristocracy was crushed, it did not perish, and the autocratic system was always ready to be restored under various guises.But great changes had taken place in France, and these changes were to some extent propagated to the countries of Europe.Because people in many countries are also suffering, as long as France raises its flag, they will try their best to respond.
The English Revolutions of 1642 and 1688 were about politics and religion, the American Revolution of 1776 was about independence in politics, and the French Revolution of 1789 was about politics, society, religion, and economics.
[-]. The Fuse of the French Revolution
As mentioned earlier, France in the 18th century was a model for all European countries.All over Europe, the "old regime" meant that the masses were being oppressed by the nobility.There are three reasons why the revolution happened first in France: (1) the French despots were more incompetent than other monarchs; (2) French philosophers were more influential than other philosophers; (3) the French people He was more influenced by the revolutionary example of England and America than any other people.
The Stupidity of Kings If Louis XV (1715-1774) and Louis XVI (1774-1792) had been as smart and competent as Frederick the Great of Prussia, the French autocracy might have lasted as long as Prussia .But Louis XV was neither "enlightened" nor great.He indulged in a life of luxury and dissoluteness, and let his favorites and mistresses rule him and France.He never tried to find ways to reduce spending or reform the government.In fact he was more extravagant than Louis XIV.Louis XVI was a monarch with good intentions, but he was easily subservient to the powerful and indecisive.His minister of state, Turkot, was capable and reform-minded, but when the nobles protested the curtailment of their privileges, the king promptly removed him from office.This happened in 1776, which happened to be the year the United States issued the Declaration of Independence.Even the oppressed third estates of France heard the cry of this great manifesto and understood part of it.
The collapse of the French monarchy Louis aided the United States not because he loved the democratic uprising, but because he feared and hated England.He helped America, he supported the cause of liberty, but this was the last boulder that weighed down the treasury of France, which was completely bankrupt.The king's subjects begged the prelates and nobles to relinquish some of their privileges and take up the burdens of the state, but to no avail.It is said that when the city of Rome was burned, Nero was still playing the harp.While the peasants were starving, the French nobles danced to their heart's content.
The old social order. The French prelates and nobles were only a small group, but they owned a lot of land, enjoyed political and social privileges, and paid no or only a small part of taxes.
The clergy belonged to the first estate in the country; the nobility to the second estate; the peasants, serfs, and bourgeoisie (merchants and professionals in the towns), the great mass of the French people, to the third estate.
The burden of the third estate The first and second estates are just a small group (less than 30 people in total), they occupy a lot of land in France, they are relatively idle, and enjoy additional special rights, only need to pay little or no taxes Tax.However, the number of people in the third class is as high as 2000 million. They only own a small amount of land, have very little rights, and have to pay a lot of taxes. Under this heavy burden, they endure great suffering.
Most farmers are tenant farmers, and it is difficult to see their landlords, but when the rent is due, they will definitely see the landlord's agent.The king's officials also kept in mind to collect heavy taxes.The nobles despised the peasants, and the peasants hated the prelates and nobles.
Although the life of the bourgeoisie is not as difficult as that of the peasants, most of the bourgeoisie are troubled by various restrictions on industry and commerce.Because the king has been adhering to the policy of mercantilism, that is, mercantilism.
The Philosopher's Influence Despite the ignorance of many French peasants, much of the third class was well-educated, and they became a loyal audience for the radical philosophers of the eighteenth century.Voltaire was more popular at home than abroad.As mentioned above, Montesquieu praised the freedom of England and criticized the autocratic system.Rousseau was the most radical in the people's struggle for rights, and his words and deeds were very popular.Napoleon Bonaparte believed that without Rousseau, there would be no French Revolution.It is thus certain that without Rousseau, the French Revolution would have found other paths.
The Revolution of Thought, the Mission of Philosophers and Scientists, was as natural elsewhere as in France, political and social, to erupt.
The revolution of thought in Britain and the United States gave the French people (and peoples of all countries) the idea of liberty and fraternity, and aroused in them hatred of absolutism and aristocracy. Two revolutions in seventeenth-century England set the example of what seemed to be eternal victory.The American Revolution was a success story full of expectations.And the French joined in the great American revolutionary struggle, which inspired them to start the same movement.
The results of the French Revolution
We have never forgotten how Parliament was convened in 1640 when King Charles I of England was on the verge of financial ruin; and how Parliament tightly controlled finances with a hostile attitude. In 1789, King Louis XVI of France responded to the collapse in the same way, calling a third estate, the National Assembly of France.
The Council of the Third Estate has been closed for 175 years and has not been convened or granted power since 1614.According to the old rules, each class should elect a representative to form a delegation to vote, and all measures must be passed with a two-thirds vote.Usually the first and second ranks unite to overwhelm the third rank in terms of votes.
The Third Estate asserts its rights. In 1789, the Third Estate recognized that it represented the majority of the country, and under the effective leadership of the Count Mirabeau, who had abandoned his aristocratic status to work with the bourgeoisie, the Third Estate asserted that the The higher-level assemblies shall form a single body, the "National Assembly".Every member of parliament has a vote, and a measure can be passed with a majority of votes.This proposition of the third class was supported by a few liberals (including Lafayette) in the second class and most low-level priests in the first class, and it also received broad and strong support in the country.
Many people in the second estate of the tennis court alliance were quite hostile to the claim of the third estate. At first, Louis XVI did not approve of the third estate because he did not want to annoy the nobles he favored. On June 6, he actually blocked the members of the third level from the meeting place in the palace.It was these people who sparked the revolution.They entered a large building not far away that occasionally served as a tennis court, where they raised their hands and swore that, as members of the "National Assembly," they would never commit suicide until a draft constitution for France had been drafted. will dissolve.The oath of the tennis court is a challenge to the king, and it also declares the demise of the autocratic system.
Soon after the fall of the Bastille the king made concessions.He ordered the three levels to form a "National Assembly", to sit together and vote by person.But soon, the royal army moved to Paris and Versailles, and it was perceived that the king was going to put pressure on the parliament.The king was begged to withdraw, but he refused.Then the people of Paris reached out to help.The people of Paris were starving and felt that their own interests were closely related to those of the National Assembly. They only rioted for 3 days.On the third day, July 3, 1789, the Bastille, the royal prison and fortress that marked the Bourbon despotism, was captured.To this day, the French still celebrate July 7 as a great national day.
King Louis XVI in cockade seems to have endorsed the established outcome.He ordered the withdrawal of the troops at Versailles and the suburbs of Paris, and also granted Lafayette the command of the new National Guard.He visited Paris in person and wore the hat badge composed of red, white and blue in the new French national flag. The people of Paris were very happy to see this.
Before long, however, a conspiracy was underway to strengthen the king's military power at Versailles. The soldiers who arrived there on the night of October 10 were first arranged to have a meal. After the soldiers were full of wine and food, their loyalty to the royal family suddenly rose and they sang royal songs loudly.News of this so-called "noisy feast" spread throughout Paris like wildfire, and the people of Paris were suffering unprecedented hunger and suffering.While the city was struggling on the brink of starvation, Versailles was feasting, resentment and excitement at their peak.
Women's March On October 10, a long procession of the poorest women in Paris, along with some men disguised as women, marched twelve miles from Paris, armed with clubs as weapons, in a commotion of starvation and anger. Versailles, shouting "Bread! Bread! Bread!" They surrounded the palace and demanded the king's bread.
The bayonet-mounted guns of the king's guard stopped the roaring people who broke into the palace.But even the king's soldiers began to waver, knowing that the women were starving.Lafayette, who later came with the National Guard, became a hero at this time.Relying on his own strength, he assumed the heavy responsibility of defending the royal family and escorting the king's soldiers back to the camp.But this violent disturbance continued all night, and although Lafayette had been doing his best to protect, some servants were killed.
At dawn, the surrendered king promised to return to Paris with the people.And so history was changed on October 10th by the long procession led by starving women from Paris, other starving people who joined them in gangs, and Lafayette on a white horse. The National Guard, with the King's carriage among the tumultuous crowd, in which sat the King, his wife, and children.People on the road shouted: "We have a baker, a baker's wife and a little cook - now we finally have bread." In the future, they may be disappointed, anyway, the royal family must be disappointed, because they will continue Nor can I go back to the gorgeous palace of Versailles.
The breakdown of the old order The storming of the Bastille in July is a signal of similar actions everywhere but Paris.In many parts of France, downtrodden peasants attacked and burned noble mansions, doing everything they could to destroy feudal titles.In some places, the homes of bishops were also searched and looted.Towns replaced the king's deputies with elected officials and created their own national guard.Both the old royal courts and the feudal ones were suspended.The old system of local government also collapsed. The reign of the Bourbons had practically ended in the summer of 7, and the capture of the king in October was only a sign of these established facts.
The request for reform Louis XVI once held a three-level meeting to help him raise funds, but his courtiers put forward their own ideas.Petitions, known as Cahiers, keep arriving here from all over the country.They expressed loyalty to the king, but they also advocated reform.Many Third Estate petitions advocated the elimination of noble privileges and the creation of a system of complete equality of all classes before the law.
Initiatives for reform As soon as the House of Representatives became the National Assembly, it set about reforming.The longest and greatest achievements of the French Revolution were achieved during the three years from 1789 to 1791 before the war and the "reign of terror".
"August Room" The abolition of the old privilege was in the famous "August Room" of 1789. On August 8, a young nobleman, a relative of Lafayette, stood up in the National Assembly and made an exciting initiative for the peasants, attacking the special rights of the upper classes.Subsequently, the Congress proposed and passed the abolition of feudal privileges, the elimination of the serf system and the taxation of all classes.Within a week, by resolution of the National Assembly, all privileges, whether class, urban, or provincial, must be publicly abolished, and the king agreed.
Now farmers can cultivate the land as they see fit and enjoy the fruits of their labor without paying tithes to the church or feudal taxes to nobles.The great estates of the nobles were divided into small parcels, which were distributed among the tenant farmers, who thereby acquired all ownership of the land which he cultivated.The bourgeoisie were also freed from the heaviest taxes, allowing them to freely choose to participate in politics and industry.
Propagating Human Rights The second great achievement of the National Assembly was a famous document unequivocally declaring the rights and liberties of the people.The United Kingdom has the Bill of Rights (1689), the United States has the Declaration of Independence (1776), and today's France (1789) has also published the "Declaration of the Rights of Citizens and Human Rights".
This great document, which fully demonstrates the spirit of Rousseau's philosophy, became the charter of the French Revolution and deeply influenced all subsequent political thought.One of the best aphorisms is: "Men are born free and equal in rights." The rights of man are "liberty, security, property, and resistance to oppression." "The law is the embodiment of the people's will. Every citizen has the right to intervene in the drafting of the law personally or by his agent. Everyone is equal before the law." No person shall be charged, arrested or detained.”
Religious tolerance, freedom of expression and the press were also recognized.
The third law of the National Assembly against Catholic legislation was to revolutionize the relationship between the French government and the Catholic Church.Many MPs were inspired by Voltaire's skeptical, deist, and anti-Christian philosophy.So Parliament passed a string of strict anti-Catholic laws.Land was confiscated and churches contained.There were fewer priests and bishops, elected by the people and paid by the state.
The struggle between the Church and the National Assembly immediately began in France.The struggle decimated support for the revolution among the masses, since most were loyal to the Church.
Financial Reform The main reason the National Assembly authorized the confiscation of church property was to reverse the collapse of the state.The state's finances were in deep disarray.At that time, direct taxes could not be collected immediately, and bankers could not be persuaded to lend to the state, so the church land was plundered to ensure the smooth issuance of banknotes.Taxes can also be collected on time.Although the amount of taxes was greater than before the revolution, the burden on the people did not appear to be heavy because the taxes were shared equally.Fair taxation became an achievement of the National Assembly.
Establishment of a constitutional monarchy In some outright revolutions a constitution was drawn up (1791) which established a constitutional monarchy in France, replacing the autocracy.
According to the Constitution of 1791, the right to vote was not extended to every citizen, but only to "active citizens", that is, taxpayers; the right to hold public office was only granted to property owners.The constitution does not have a "house of nobles", but only a "legislative assembly" elected by all "active citizens".The king enjoys the "suspension veto power", that is, the right to postpone the implementation of the bills of the Legislative Assembly as stipulated.But the king lost all control over the navy, army, clergy, and local government.
The king felt that most restrictions on his powers were radical, but his subjects did not.As time passed and crisis loomed, the revolution became more radical.
[-]. The invasion of the kings
It was not long before the kings of other countries were ready to restore Louis XVI's power and status, hindering revolution and innovation in France.
Throne under duress Other kings of Europe feared for their own crowns and thrones as they watched the King of France sucked into the maelstrom of revolution.No doubt they understood that their people had as many reasons to stand up as the people of France.The French Revolution was a revolt against the old order: despots and nobles throughout Europe were at risk.This was true even of Edmund Burke, who had shown a few years earlier that he was in favor of the Americans against the British, and that he did not support the French Revolution.He feared a social revolution in England too.
Exiles Many French nobles and prelates left France.They turned for help, to those princes who might have mercy on the King of France.The exiles naturally hoped to have their lands, houses, and former privileges restored.They prompted the kings of Europe to act to prevent the French Revolution.
Sympathetic kings There is no doubt that kings all over Europe sympathized with the king of France.Some people quickly expressed their willingness to lend a helping hand.The Austrian Emperor Leopold II, brother of Louis XVI's wife, Empress Marie-Antoinette, had a deeply personal stake in the fate of the French royal family.
The eyes of the French people are discerning after a failed escape. They know that the kings of other countries are planning to get ahead of him and intervene in the French Revolution for the sake of Louis XVI.If this intervention succeeds, the revolution and the innovations already accomplished will be shattered.They were determined not to allow any outsider to help the exiles restore their former privileges and the power of Louis XVI.
Unfortunately, Louis XVI made the situation suddenly worse when he tried to escape from France. In June 1791, he and the queen fled from Paris to Germany, but were captured and escorted back to Varonas near the border.From then on, Paris was no longer their capital, but a prison where they were imprisoned, and the royal power and power were weakened and declined.Deliberate absconding shows that they are in collusion with the nobles and against the majority of the country's citizens.The escape annoyed the exiles because the escape ultimately failed.It also shocked and outraged the leaders of the revolution, because the escape almost succeeded.
The Declaration of Piernitz In August 1791, Leopold of Austria persuaded Friedrich William II of Prussia to publish the Declaration of Piernitz with him, to the effect that the two kings believed that the restoration of the monarchy in France Peace and order are the common interests of all the kings of Europe.Austria and Prussia prepare to attack France.
Defensive and provocative The leaders of the French Revolution decided to rise up and some agreed to immediately declare France a republic. In April 1792, after Leopold refused to withdraw troops from the frontiers and to expel the exiles from his own country, France declared war on Prussia and Austria.The French wore red hats symbolizing freedom and sang the new hymn "Marseillaise" for freedom. "La Marseillaise" soon became the French national anthem.
Lafayette, commander of the new French army, clearly had greater aspirations than his talents.He soon began campaigning against Leopold's Belgium, but ended in failure.Louis XVI secretly helped Leopold.
The Brunswick Proclamation So the Duke of Brunswick, who commanded the Austro-Prussian allied forces, attacked France from the east and made a solemn proclamation to the French people, stating that his intention was to restore the king and punish the rebels. The royal family is harmed and Paris is about to be destroyed.
No doubt the duke sees the announcement as a good piece of writing and hopes it will do a lot.It did work a lot, but it was the opposite of what he expected.Not only did the French people not abolish the 1791 constitution and restore the autocratic system, but they also overthrew the constitutional monarchy and created a republic.
The people of Paris were massacred and beheaded and some radicals seized control, the king's residence was attacked and the king was imprisoned.The next month, in September 1792, when news of the siege of Verdun by the Austrians and Prussians came, nearly 9 royalist prisoners had been massacred in Paris. On September 2000, Du Maurier led a detachment of French troops and defeated the invaders at Valmy.The autumn and early winter of that same year saw some exciting events. On January 9, 20, the unfortunate King Louis XVI was beheaded next to the overthrown statue of Louis XV.
First French Republic On September 1792, 9, when news of Valmy's victory reached Paris, the French Republic was established.That day is regarded as New Year's Day in the first year of the new calendar.The new republic of America is no longer the loneliest in the world.The French Republic was the second great republic born of the Revolution.
Democracy and Challenge Not long after the execution of Louis XVI, England, Holland, Spain and Sardinia, along with Austria and Prussia, united against the French Republic.But France dared to challenge the autocratic system and aristocratic politics, and the revolution gained momentum throughout Europe.
War and terror The period of the First French Republic was filled with blood and brutality.Instigated by others and deeply convinced of the Catholic Church, the peasants of Wangdai opposed the new government.Du Maurier, an able general, defected to the enemy, and Rachael Carnot became the great "organizer of the defense."Opinions within the revolutionary leaders were not unified, with some conservative and some more radical.As is often the case in revolutions, the more radical took power and killed many friends as well as enemies.The most evil "reign of terror" was Robespierre's reign in 1793 and 1794.Queen Marie Antoinette was one of the victims.But Robespierre was quickly executed in July 1794.
Guillotine The beheading machine, still in use in France today, is famous for being the machine used to execute the death penalty.It has two straight pillars, and a heavy knife rises and falls in the middle.It was named after a physician named Guillotin, who recommended it for executions because it was faster, more accurate, and more merciful than beheading with a hand axe.The person who was beheaded was held under a heavy knife, and the knife cut the vital parts, and the body and head were separated immediately.
It is estimated that 2500 people were beheaded in Paris and nearly 1 elsewhere in France during the Reign of Terror.
Winged Victory In civil wars and factional feuds, France wiped out its foreign enemies.So Kano is rightly called the "organizer of victory".The French sang "Marseillaise" and waved flags with revolutionary slogans such as "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity", and walked excitedly to the battlefield.These slogans are the wings of the goddess of victory.
[-]. The military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte
The famous year 1795 is a famous year in French history, ending the National Convention that once drafted the constitution for the republic.It was under this constitution that the Republic was established.Legislative power is vested in two bodies indirectly elected by the people. Executive powers are vested in the "Directory", a committee of five directors, or deacons, chosen by the legislator.
In the same year, the six-nation alliance formed to crush the cause of the French Revolution finally disintegrated due to the successive military victories of the French army.Only Austria, Sardinia and the United Kingdom have been at war with France, and Sardinia and the United Kingdom are not fighting with all their strength.The French Revolution looks to be over by the end of the year.But Napoleon Bonaparte began to emerge in 1795.
In 1795, Napoleon was only 26 years old.His ancestry is Italian and he was born on the island of Corsica under the French flag. In 1793 he helped Carnot drive the British out of Toulon. In 1795 he posed as a friend of law and order, and during the last popular uprising in Paris, he defended the Convention with cannon, adding to his popularity.He had read Rousseau, had been in touch with Robespierre for a time, and expressed sympathy for the revolution that overthrew the monarchy.But he didn't miss any chance to improve himself. For 10 years, he became the dictator of France.Then he tried his best to make himself the master of Europe.
General and First Consul In 1796 and 1797, Napoleon led the French army and first declared war on Austria in northern Italy with great success.In the next two years, in order to fight back against the British, he attacked Egypt, and the pyramids witnessed the valor of the French soldiers.He also made many exciting events, which were published in domestic newspapers, which made people very excited to read, but he did not cause substantial harm to Britain.
In 1799, while Napoleon was in Egypt, Britain, Austria, and Russia once again formed an alliance against the French Republic. The French Revolution in 1799 seemed to pose a greater threat to the monarchy than in 1792.By then, French generals had suffered defeats in Europe.The French army, without Napoleon's command, was defeated and driven out of Italy, and their new republic fell with it.At this time the hero Napoleon had returned to France from Egypt.He became the embodiment of the army, and all French people supported him and worshiped the army he led.Napoleon's ambitions were equal to his fame and opportunities.
Soon the Directory was kicked out.The drafting of the new constitution was completed. Under the banner of the Republic, the new constitution made a series of regulations in line with a military dictator, and Napoleon assumed the first power.
As the first consul, Napoleon curry favor with Russia and reached a settlement in 1801 and 1802, defeated Austria for the second time on the battlefield, and won the negotiation with Britain.France is at peace with the world for the first time since 1792. "Liberty, equality, fraternity" France was saved from being surrounded by powerful enemies.
The general and emperor Napoleon was now a hero to the French. In 1802, the people elected him to be in power for life, and in 1804 they elected him as emperor.But France is not so much an empire as a republic.
Bonaparte, as Napoleon I, Emperor of France, didn't cancel all revolutions, he tried to complete them, he put all the powers of government in one person.From his reign to the present day, France has become a highly centralized state, whether it was formerly known as a kingdom, an empire, or a republic.
Statesman and diplomat Napoleon also admitted that he was not only a soldier, but also a statesman.He did not return the confiscated church property, but he restored some of the privileges of the priests, and to some extent reaffirmed the authority of the Pope.He created the Banque de France as part of an effort to reform the currency system; he allocated funds to the well-functioning National School, which later became the University of France.He built canals and roads, and repaired the city of Paris.He intended to restore the French colonial empire lost by Louis XV. In 1800 he forced Spain to cede most of Louisiana America to France, which was a good start.Before long, he tried to maintain French control of the island of Haiti, but he voluntarily relinquished the island in 1803, selling Louisiana to the United States that year.
Napoleon the legislator, with the help of legal experts, compiled and published several reform codes, which was a great and peaceful work.His compilations tease the law into a concise and clear system.These codes, though incomplete, embody the revolution's best achievements, such as civil equality, religious tolerance, and liberty for all.His legal system was called the "Code Napoleon," and was for a long time one of the best codes in the world.
Emperors and Conquistadors Before Napoleon came onto the scene, the leaders of the French Revolution declared their aim to overthrow absolutism and aristocratic privilege throughout Europe.Napoleon strongly agreed with this.But at the same time, he also understands that this is an excellent opportunity to make himself famous.
Therefore, Napoleon's autocratic rule symbolized war, not peace.War, in the minds of his subjects and soldiers, meant to bring liberty, equality and fraternity to all of Europe.In his mind, it also meant tameness and personal power.
More glorious victories During the period from 1805 to 1810, Napoleon fought many countries in Europe, and also achieved many brilliant victories.The Austrians, Prussians and Russians were all crushed by Napoleon's iron fist.On the ruins of the old dynasty he painted the new kingdom, and placed his kin on custom-made thrones.For example, he made one of his brothers king of a part of Germany, another of Spain, and a brother-in-law of southern Italy.But he is not only a tamer, but also a statesman.He brought various ideas of the French Revolution to European countries, including nationalist ideas.For Italy and Germany, he pointed out the direction of national unity.
His last big victory was in 1809, when Austria hoped to break away from Napoleon's rule, and was defeated in the battle of Wagram, and had to cede the land to Napoleon, and married the proud Habsburg princess Maria Luisa to him.
But the Battle of Wagram was Napoleon's last great victory.Excessive power made him hotheaded, and soon he was stretching his hands even longer.He began his career as a "born child of the revolution" and a preacher of the gospel of equality, but in the end he developed into a self-centered despot.He cost thousands of lives in struggles that could no longer justify themselves in the name of any liberty, equality, or fraternity.
His First Big Defeat From 1806 to 1810, Napoleon prepared to use a trade blockade known as the "Continental System" to contain Britain.He intended to prevent the transport of British goods to any part of Europe.This is very much, all his power expansion is very much.Russia and other countries began to accept British goods.So Napoleon led the army to invade Russia in 1810.But the Russians outwitted him.They withdrew before him and induced him to drive the eight hundred miles to the heart of Russia without stopping.At this moment, the city of Moscow where he was stationed was on fire.Exhausted by long marches and flank attacks, his army was trapped not only deep in the heart of Russia, but in the bitter cold of Russia.His far-flung withdrawal from Moscow was one of the most horrific episodes in history.Only a fraction of his "lions" made it back to the Rhine.In that horrible year, not only a million lives were lost, but Napoleon's glory was also lost.
Napoleon had tasted defeat before, as in 1789, when his French fleet was defeated by a British fleet under Lord Nelson at the mouth of the Nile, despite the help of Syria and Egypt. In 1805, Napoleon formulated an ambitious plan to land directly on Britain, but this battle made him taste the bitter fruit. The French fleet and its ally Spanish fleet were defeated again by Nelson at Trafalgar. .But Russia's deadly winter pushed Napoleon to his first land defeat.This was the beginning of his tragic end.
His second big defeat In October 1813, in the suburbs of Leipzig in Saxony, Napoleon suffered the second big defeat in his life.For three days his army fought against a coalition of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Austria, and others.The Battle of Leipzig is often referred to as the "Battle of the Nations" due to the many countries involved.Napoleon was defeated again.He was captured the following year and exiled to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean.
His third major defeat was in March 1815, just as diplomats were meeting in Vienna to destroy Napoleon and the fruits of the French Revolution. Napoleon fled from the island of Elba to France, and he called his old ministry together. , also recruited some recruits, and competed with Europe for another 3 days.But on June 100, at Waterloo, he was finally crushed.This time he was escorted to another small island, St. Helena, which is an island in the far South Atlantic Ocean, so that he never returned to France alive.
[-]. The Restoration of the Dynasty
The Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 advocated the restoration of the old order, which tried again to "put the past back on its throne".French revolutionary ideas were to be purged as much as possible.Napoleon destroyed old maps and drew new ones; he also abolished many princes, re-divided their territories, and installed new governments in these places and renamed them.Absolute regimes, even enlightened monarchies, have had some dire hurdles since 1789.After Napoleon fell from power, these monarchs began to be proud again.They were promoted to the stage and got their original property, although of course this was temporary.But political and social conflicts persist.
Louis XVIII in France In France, the important political and social innovations of the revolutionary period were allowed to survive.But there was another king in France—Louis XVIII.He was born into the Bourbon royal family and was the younger brother of Louis XVI.He was Louis XVIII, since the young son of Louis XVI, who died in 1795, was Louis XVII.Louis XVIII reigned until his death in 1824.
Italy and Germany Italy was divided into several duchies and kingdoms.The rich northern regions of Lombardy and Venice belonged to Austria.But the ideas of liberty, adopted from the French Revolution, and the ideas of solidarity and nationalism advocated by Napoleon were not forgotten.These ideas remained cherished by Italians until, many years later, Italy was liberated and united.
Napoleon defended unity over liberty.In Germany, he did a lot of work to merge many small states together and abolished the princes of these small states.The Congress of Vienna was more interested in the princes than in the people, and paid little attention to nature or the unity of nations.But in any case, some of the German princes were indifferently thrown aside, and Germany did not return to the many small states it had been before.Germany is no longer hundreds of small kingdoms, duchies and marquises. The Vienna Conference established 38 states and formed the German Federation.The German Confederation is a loose union, but it's better than no unity at all.This is only the first step towards true unity.
Almost all the old rulers and dynasties were restored, but the restoration was neither absolute nor long-term.Although Napoleon was selfish and regarded human life as nothing, he finally brought to Western Europe the positive things of the French Revolution that outlived Napoleon and the restored monarchs .
[-]. Permanent results
Many of the noble aims of the French Revolution were left unfulfilled, and its horror and misery are rather deplored, but it also achieved some permanent results, some of which were even of great value.
The Abolition of Feudal Privileges During the "August" of 1789, the excitement prompted the National Assembly to completely abolish many of the old privileges.Serfdom was abolished, feudal burdens abolished, priests and churches gave up tithes and all extra privileges.
The bourgeoisie and the town middle classes, freed from the heaviest taxes, are free to participate in politics and industry.Subsequently, royal despotism, domestic tariffs, and guilds were abolished, so that there were more opportunities for increasing wealth.
Farmers benefit the most from "August".From the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century, an obvious feature of French agriculture was the individual ownership of small farmers, which can be traced back to the "August" in 1789.
Economic and Social Innovation The National Assembly weakened the extra privileges and began to implement social and economic reforms.The National Convention then advanced by the same rules, ending black slavery, outlawing captivity for debt, and guaranteeing women the same property rights as men.A number of important initiatives have been implemented to reduce various inequalities of wealth.For example, the new inheritance law was adopted, which stipulates that no one can leave the inheritance to only one heir and exclude the rest of the heirs, and also requires all children to inherit the inheritance equally or as equally as possible.This law of inheritance made modern France famous throughout the European countries.
Many of the reforms of the Metric Convention of Weights and Measures were extreme.One of the regulations is that it is not allowed to call "Mr." but "Citizen". This reform is too big a fuss.Attempts to replace the old calendar with a new one, with the main aim of making historical Christianity forget, proved futile and short-lived.In order to facilitate calculations, a new decimal system of weights and measures was established, which is a great improvement over the old system.The new "metric system" is adopted by almost all civilized countries (except English-speaking countries).
Declaration of Rights Drafted in 1789, the Declaration of Rights soon acquired the same status in history as other great documents concerning human liberty, such as the British Magna Carta and the Declaration of Rights, the Dutch "Apology" of William the Reticent, the American Independence Declaration and Federal Constitution.It was (and is) one of the great and enduring achievements of the French Revolution.
The idea of equality The slogan of the French Revolution was "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity".Many evil deeds are committed in the name of freedom; equality is a dream that is neither clear nor locating, and that many people do not yearn for; fraternity is beautiful in theory, but it is difficult to realize; even Thus, democracy and liberty were still advanced by the French Revolution.When we talk about freedom, we refer to the freedoms that are protected within the scope and appropriate degree of the law; when we talk about democracy, we refer to the right of ordinary citizens to be the masters of their own affairs and freedom of speech in the government.Another idea that should be recognized is nationalism.This idea was emphasized by the French Revolution and spread throughout Europe by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Thoughts are seen in action Some people once said that the revolutionary French army was "the march of equality", and others said that the reason why the French bayonet is so powerful is because the knife itself has a mind.The above shows that the French people themselves are inspired by lofty goals, and that the peoples of other European countries have been influenced by their lofty ideals, and they have more or less accepted these ideas.The ideas of the French Revolution eventually revolutionized all of Western Europe.
Of course, these ideas are not new, they are a synthesis of ideas from the Revolution of Thought (without going back very far) and the American Revolution.The French Revolution brought them to Europe in a new and powerful light.
Antagonism between state and church One of the consequences of the French Revolution was the growing critique of Christian skepticism and the contradiction between state and church.Since then, such disputes have continued to be staged in France.
The Napoleonic Code Because Napoleon Bonaparte was "a child of the revolution," we attribute his activities—both good and bad—as fruits of the revolution.The massive killing of the young French (and others) during the 20 years of war did have far-reaching consequences for permanent woe.But on the other hand, we must never forget his great contribution to peace, the Napoleonic Code.
National Unity Napoleon only partially implemented one of the basic principles of the revolution, namely, the strengthening of nationalist consciousness.He helped peoples of the same language to move towards political unity in a realistic way.In France, he centralized power in the central government.In Italy and Germany, too, the governments he instituted were more or less models of national unity.In Europe, nationalism and democracy were also clearly promoted by the French Revolution.
(End of this chapter)
The French Revolution that broke out in 1789 was an uprising of the French people against the autocratic system and aristocratic politics.Because one change begets another over a period of more than 20 years, it is difficult to say when it ended; likewise, how it ended is difficult to say, because the freedom expected by the revolution did not come quickly.Although the aristocracy was crushed, it did not perish, and the autocratic system was always ready to be restored under various guises.But great changes had taken place in France, and these changes were to some extent propagated to the countries of Europe.Because people in many countries are also suffering, as long as France raises its flag, they will try their best to respond.
The English Revolutions of 1642 and 1688 were about politics and religion, the American Revolution of 1776 was about independence in politics, and the French Revolution of 1789 was about politics, society, religion, and economics.
[-]. The Fuse of the French Revolution
As mentioned earlier, France in the 18th century was a model for all European countries.All over Europe, the "old regime" meant that the masses were being oppressed by the nobility.There are three reasons why the revolution happened first in France: (1) the French despots were more incompetent than other monarchs; (2) French philosophers were more influential than other philosophers; (3) the French people He was more influenced by the revolutionary example of England and America than any other people.
The Stupidity of Kings If Louis XV (1715-1774) and Louis XVI (1774-1792) had been as smart and competent as Frederick the Great of Prussia, the French autocracy might have lasted as long as Prussia .But Louis XV was neither "enlightened" nor great.He indulged in a life of luxury and dissoluteness, and let his favorites and mistresses rule him and France.He never tried to find ways to reduce spending or reform the government.In fact he was more extravagant than Louis XIV.Louis XVI was a monarch with good intentions, but he was easily subservient to the powerful and indecisive.His minister of state, Turkot, was capable and reform-minded, but when the nobles protested the curtailment of their privileges, the king promptly removed him from office.This happened in 1776, which happened to be the year the United States issued the Declaration of Independence.Even the oppressed third estates of France heard the cry of this great manifesto and understood part of it.
The collapse of the French monarchy Louis aided the United States not because he loved the democratic uprising, but because he feared and hated England.He helped America, he supported the cause of liberty, but this was the last boulder that weighed down the treasury of France, which was completely bankrupt.The king's subjects begged the prelates and nobles to relinquish some of their privileges and take up the burdens of the state, but to no avail.It is said that when the city of Rome was burned, Nero was still playing the harp.While the peasants were starving, the French nobles danced to their heart's content.
The old social order. The French prelates and nobles were only a small group, but they owned a lot of land, enjoyed political and social privileges, and paid no or only a small part of taxes.
The clergy belonged to the first estate in the country; the nobility to the second estate; the peasants, serfs, and bourgeoisie (merchants and professionals in the towns), the great mass of the French people, to the third estate.
The burden of the third estate The first and second estates are just a small group (less than 30 people in total), they occupy a lot of land in France, they are relatively idle, and enjoy additional special rights, only need to pay little or no taxes Tax.However, the number of people in the third class is as high as 2000 million. They only own a small amount of land, have very little rights, and have to pay a lot of taxes. Under this heavy burden, they endure great suffering.
Most farmers are tenant farmers, and it is difficult to see their landlords, but when the rent is due, they will definitely see the landlord's agent.The king's officials also kept in mind to collect heavy taxes.The nobles despised the peasants, and the peasants hated the prelates and nobles.
Although the life of the bourgeoisie is not as difficult as that of the peasants, most of the bourgeoisie are troubled by various restrictions on industry and commerce.Because the king has been adhering to the policy of mercantilism, that is, mercantilism.
The Philosopher's Influence Despite the ignorance of many French peasants, much of the third class was well-educated, and they became a loyal audience for the radical philosophers of the eighteenth century.Voltaire was more popular at home than abroad.As mentioned above, Montesquieu praised the freedom of England and criticized the autocratic system.Rousseau was the most radical in the people's struggle for rights, and his words and deeds were very popular.Napoleon Bonaparte believed that without Rousseau, there would be no French Revolution.It is thus certain that without Rousseau, the French Revolution would have found other paths.
The Revolution of Thought, the Mission of Philosophers and Scientists, was as natural elsewhere as in France, political and social, to erupt.
The revolution of thought in Britain and the United States gave the French people (and peoples of all countries) the idea of liberty and fraternity, and aroused in them hatred of absolutism and aristocracy. Two revolutions in seventeenth-century England set the example of what seemed to be eternal victory.The American Revolution was a success story full of expectations.And the French joined in the great American revolutionary struggle, which inspired them to start the same movement.
The results of the French Revolution
We have never forgotten how Parliament was convened in 1640 when King Charles I of England was on the verge of financial ruin; and how Parliament tightly controlled finances with a hostile attitude. In 1789, King Louis XVI of France responded to the collapse in the same way, calling a third estate, the National Assembly of France.
The Council of the Third Estate has been closed for 175 years and has not been convened or granted power since 1614.According to the old rules, each class should elect a representative to form a delegation to vote, and all measures must be passed with a two-thirds vote.Usually the first and second ranks unite to overwhelm the third rank in terms of votes.
The Third Estate asserts its rights. In 1789, the Third Estate recognized that it represented the majority of the country, and under the effective leadership of the Count Mirabeau, who had abandoned his aristocratic status to work with the bourgeoisie, the Third Estate asserted that the The higher-level assemblies shall form a single body, the "National Assembly".Every member of parliament has a vote, and a measure can be passed with a majority of votes.This proposition of the third class was supported by a few liberals (including Lafayette) in the second class and most low-level priests in the first class, and it also received broad and strong support in the country.
Many people in the second estate of the tennis court alliance were quite hostile to the claim of the third estate. At first, Louis XVI did not approve of the third estate because he did not want to annoy the nobles he favored. On June 6, he actually blocked the members of the third level from the meeting place in the palace.It was these people who sparked the revolution.They entered a large building not far away that occasionally served as a tennis court, where they raised their hands and swore that, as members of the "National Assembly," they would never commit suicide until a draft constitution for France had been drafted. will dissolve.The oath of the tennis court is a challenge to the king, and it also declares the demise of the autocratic system.
Soon after the fall of the Bastille the king made concessions.He ordered the three levels to form a "National Assembly", to sit together and vote by person.But soon, the royal army moved to Paris and Versailles, and it was perceived that the king was going to put pressure on the parliament.The king was begged to withdraw, but he refused.Then the people of Paris reached out to help.The people of Paris were starving and felt that their own interests were closely related to those of the National Assembly. They only rioted for 3 days.On the third day, July 3, 1789, the Bastille, the royal prison and fortress that marked the Bourbon despotism, was captured.To this day, the French still celebrate July 7 as a great national day.
King Louis XVI in cockade seems to have endorsed the established outcome.He ordered the withdrawal of the troops at Versailles and the suburbs of Paris, and also granted Lafayette the command of the new National Guard.He visited Paris in person and wore the hat badge composed of red, white and blue in the new French national flag. The people of Paris were very happy to see this.
Before long, however, a conspiracy was underway to strengthen the king's military power at Versailles. The soldiers who arrived there on the night of October 10 were first arranged to have a meal. After the soldiers were full of wine and food, their loyalty to the royal family suddenly rose and they sang royal songs loudly.News of this so-called "noisy feast" spread throughout Paris like wildfire, and the people of Paris were suffering unprecedented hunger and suffering.While the city was struggling on the brink of starvation, Versailles was feasting, resentment and excitement at their peak.
Women's March On October 10, a long procession of the poorest women in Paris, along with some men disguised as women, marched twelve miles from Paris, armed with clubs as weapons, in a commotion of starvation and anger. Versailles, shouting "Bread! Bread! Bread!" They surrounded the palace and demanded the king's bread.
The bayonet-mounted guns of the king's guard stopped the roaring people who broke into the palace.But even the king's soldiers began to waver, knowing that the women were starving.Lafayette, who later came with the National Guard, became a hero at this time.Relying on his own strength, he assumed the heavy responsibility of defending the royal family and escorting the king's soldiers back to the camp.But this violent disturbance continued all night, and although Lafayette had been doing his best to protect, some servants were killed.
At dawn, the surrendered king promised to return to Paris with the people.And so history was changed on October 10th by the long procession led by starving women from Paris, other starving people who joined them in gangs, and Lafayette on a white horse. The National Guard, with the King's carriage among the tumultuous crowd, in which sat the King, his wife, and children.People on the road shouted: "We have a baker, a baker's wife and a little cook - now we finally have bread." In the future, they may be disappointed, anyway, the royal family must be disappointed, because they will continue Nor can I go back to the gorgeous palace of Versailles.
The breakdown of the old order The storming of the Bastille in July is a signal of similar actions everywhere but Paris.In many parts of France, downtrodden peasants attacked and burned noble mansions, doing everything they could to destroy feudal titles.In some places, the homes of bishops were also searched and looted.Towns replaced the king's deputies with elected officials and created their own national guard.Both the old royal courts and the feudal ones were suspended.The old system of local government also collapsed. The reign of the Bourbons had practically ended in the summer of 7, and the capture of the king in October was only a sign of these established facts.
The request for reform Louis XVI once held a three-level meeting to help him raise funds, but his courtiers put forward their own ideas.Petitions, known as Cahiers, keep arriving here from all over the country.They expressed loyalty to the king, but they also advocated reform.Many Third Estate petitions advocated the elimination of noble privileges and the creation of a system of complete equality of all classes before the law.
Initiatives for reform As soon as the House of Representatives became the National Assembly, it set about reforming.The longest and greatest achievements of the French Revolution were achieved during the three years from 1789 to 1791 before the war and the "reign of terror".
"August Room" The abolition of the old privilege was in the famous "August Room" of 1789. On August 8, a young nobleman, a relative of Lafayette, stood up in the National Assembly and made an exciting initiative for the peasants, attacking the special rights of the upper classes.Subsequently, the Congress proposed and passed the abolition of feudal privileges, the elimination of the serf system and the taxation of all classes.Within a week, by resolution of the National Assembly, all privileges, whether class, urban, or provincial, must be publicly abolished, and the king agreed.
Now farmers can cultivate the land as they see fit and enjoy the fruits of their labor without paying tithes to the church or feudal taxes to nobles.The great estates of the nobles were divided into small parcels, which were distributed among the tenant farmers, who thereby acquired all ownership of the land which he cultivated.The bourgeoisie were also freed from the heaviest taxes, allowing them to freely choose to participate in politics and industry.
Propagating Human Rights The second great achievement of the National Assembly was a famous document unequivocally declaring the rights and liberties of the people.The United Kingdom has the Bill of Rights (1689), the United States has the Declaration of Independence (1776), and today's France (1789) has also published the "Declaration of the Rights of Citizens and Human Rights".
This great document, which fully demonstrates the spirit of Rousseau's philosophy, became the charter of the French Revolution and deeply influenced all subsequent political thought.One of the best aphorisms is: "Men are born free and equal in rights." The rights of man are "liberty, security, property, and resistance to oppression." "The law is the embodiment of the people's will. Every citizen has the right to intervene in the drafting of the law personally or by his agent. Everyone is equal before the law." No person shall be charged, arrested or detained.”
Religious tolerance, freedom of expression and the press were also recognized.
The third law of the National Assembly against Catholic legislation was to revolutionize the relationship between the French government and the Catholic Church.Many MPs were inspired by Voltaire's skeptical, deist, and anti-Christian philosophy.So Parliament passed a string of strict anti-Catholic laws.Land was confiscated and churches contained.There were fewer priests and bishops, elected by the people and paid by the state.
The struggle between the Church and the National Assembly immediately began in France.The struggle decimated support for the revolution among the masses, since most were loyal to the Church.
Financial Reform The main reason the National Assembly authorized the confiscation of church property was to reverse the collapse of the state.The state's finances were in deep disarray.At that time, direct taxes could not be collected immediately, and bankers could not be persuaded to lend to the state, so the church land was plundered to ensure the smooth issuance of banknotes.Taxes can also be collected on time.Although the amount of taxes was greater than before the revolution, the burden on the people did not appear to be heavy because the taxes were shared equally.Fair taxation became an achievement of the National Assembly.
Establishment of a constitutional monarchy In some outright revolutions a constitution was drawn up (1791) which established a constitutional monarchy in France, replacing the autocracy.
According to the Constitution of 1791, the right to vote was not extended to every citizen, but only to "active citizens", that is, taxpayers; the right to hold public office was only granted to property owners.The constitution does not have a "house of nobles", but only a "legislative assembly" elected by all "active citizens".The king enjoys the "suspension veto power", that is, the right to postpone the implementation of the bills of the Legislative Assembly as stipulated.But the king lost all control over the navy, army, clergy, and local government.
The king felt that most restrictions on his powers were radical, but his subjects did not.As time passed and crisis loomed, the revolution became more radical.
[-]. The invasion of the kings
It was not long before the kings of other countries were ready to restore Louis XVI's power and status, hindering revolution and innovation in France.
Throne under duress Other kings of Europe feared for their own crowns and thrones as they watched the King of France sucked into the maelstrom of revolution.No doubt they understood that their people had as many reasons to stand up as the people of France.The French Revolution was a revolt against the old order: despots and nobles throughout Europe were at risk.This was true even of Edmund Burke, who had shown a few years earlier that he was in favor of the Americans against the British, and that he did not support the French Revolution.He feared a social revolution in England too.
Exiles Many French nobles and prelates left France.They turned for help, to those princes who might have mercy on the King of France.The exiles naturally hoped to have their lands, houses, and former privileges restored.They prompted the kings of Europe to act to prevent the French Revolution.
Sympathetic kings There is no doubt that kings all over Europe sympathized with the king of France.Some people quickly expressed their willingness to lend a helping hand.The Austrian Emperor Leopold II, brother of Louis XVI's wife, Empress Marie-Antoinette, had a deeply personal stake in the fate of the French royal family.
The eyes of the French people are discerning after a failed escape. They know that the kings of other countries are planning to get ahead of him and intervene in the French Revolution for the sake of Louis XVI.If this intervention succeeds, the revolution and the innovations already accomplished will be shattered.They were determined not to allow any outsider to help the exiles restore their former privileges and the power of Louis XVI.
Unfortunately, Louis XVI made the situation suddenly worse when he tried to escape from France. In June 1791, he and the queen fled from Paris to Germany, but were captured and escorted back to Varonas near the border.From then on, Paris was no longer their capital, but a prison where they were imprisoned, and the royal power and power were weakened and declined.Deliberate absconding shows that they are in collusion with the nobles and against the majority of the country's citizens.The escape annoyed the exiles because the escape ultimately failed.It also shocked and outraged the leaders of the revolution, because the escape almost succeeded.
The Declaration of Piernitz In August 1791, Leopold of Austria persuaded Friedrich William II of Prussia to publish the Declaration of Piernitz with him, to the effect that the two kings believed that the restoration of the monarchy in France Peace and order are the common interests of all the kings of Europe.Austria and Prussia prepare to attack France.
Defensive and provocative The leaders of the French Revolution decided to rise up and some agreed to immediately declare France a republic. In April 1792, after Leopold refused to withdraw troops from the frontiers and to expel the exiles from his own country, France declared war on Prussia and Austria.The French wore red hats symbolizing freedom and sang the new hymn "Marseillaise" for freedom. "La Marseillaise" soon became the French national anthem.
Lafayette, commander of the new French army, clearly had greater aspirations than his talents.He soon began campaigning against Leopold's Belgium, but ended in failure.Louis XVI secretly helped Leopold.
The Brunswick Proclamation So the Duke of Brunswick, who commanded the Austro-Prussian allied forces, attacked France from the east and made a solemn proclamation to the French people, stating that his intention was to restore the king and punish the rebels. The royal family is harmed and Paris is about to be destroyed.
No doubt the duke sees the announcement as a good piece of writing and hopes it will do a lot.It did work a lot, but it was the opposite of what he expected.Not only did the French people not abolish the 1791 constitution and restore the autocratic system, but they also overthrew the constitutional monarchy and created a republic.
The people of Paris were massacred and beheaded and some radicals seized control, the king's residence was attacked and the king was imprisoned.The next month, in September 1792, when news of the siege of Verdun by the Austrians and Prussians came, nearly 9 royalist prisoners had been massacred in Paris. On September 2000, Du Maurier led a detachment of French troops and defeated the invaders at Valmy.The autumn and early winter of that same year saw some exciting events. On January 9, 20, the unfortunate King Louis XVI was beheaded next to the overthrown statue of Louis XV.
First French Republic On September 1792, 9, when news of Valmy's victory reached Paris, the French Republic was established.That day is regarded as New Year's Day in the first year of the new calendar.The new republic of America is no longer the loneliest in the world.The French Republic was the second great republic born of the Revolution.
Democracy and Challenge Not long after the execution of Louis XVI, England, Holland, Spain and Sardinia, along with Austria and Prussia, united against the French Republic.But France dared to challenge the autocratic system and aristocratic politics, and the revolution gained momentum throughout Europe.
War and terror The period of the First French Republic was filled with blood and brutality.Instigated by others and deeply convinced of the Catholic Church, the peasants of Wangdai opposed the new government.Du Maurier, an able general, defected to the enemy, and Rachael Carnot became the great "organizer of the defense."Opinions within the revolutionary leaders were not unified, with some conservative and some more radical.As is often the case in revolutions, the more radical took power and killed many friends as well as enemies.The most evil "reign of terror" was Robespierre's reign in 1793 and 1794.Queen Marie Antoinette was one of the victims.But Robespierre was quickly executed in July 1794.
Guillotine The beheading machine, still in use in France today, is famous for being the machine used to execute the death penalty.It has two straight pillars, and a heavy knife rises and falls in the middle.It was named after a physician named Guillotin, who recommended it for executions because it was faster, more accurate, and more merciful than beheading with a hand axe.The person who was beheaded was held under a heavy knife, and the knife cut the vital parts, and the body and head were separated immediately.
It is estimated that 2500 people were beheaded in Paris and nearly 1 elsewhere in France during the Reign of Terror.
Winged Victory In civil wars and factional feuds, France wiped out its foreign enemies.So Kano is rightly called the "organizer of victory".The French sang "Marseillaise" and waved flags with revolutionary slogans such as "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity", and walked excitedly to the battlefield.These slogans are the wings of the goddess of victory.
[-]. The military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte
The famous year 1795 is a famous year in French history, ending the National Convention that once drafted the constitution for the republic.It was under this constitution that the Republic was established.Legislative power is vested in two bodies indirectly elected by the people. Executive powers are vested in the "Directory", a committee of five directors, or deacons, chosen by the legislator.
In the same year, the six-nation alliance formed to crush the cause of the French Revolution finally disintegrated due to the successive military victories of the French army.Only Austria, Sardinia and the United Kingdom have been at war with France, and Sardinia and the United Kingdom are not fighting with all their strength.The French Revolution looks to be over by the end of the year.But Napoleon Bonaparte began to emerge in 1795.
In 1795, Napoleon was only 26 years old.His ancestry is Italian and he was born on the island of Corsica under the French flag. In 1793 he helped Carnot drive the British out of Toulon. In 1795 he posed as a friend of law and order, and during the last popular uprising in Paris, he defended the Convention with cannon, adding to his popularity.He had read Rousseau, had been in touch with Robespierre for a time, and expressed sympathy for the revolution that overthrew the monarchy.But he didn't miss any chance to improve himself. For 10 years, he became the dictator of France.Then he tried his best to make himself the master of Europe.
General and First Consul In 1796 and 1797, Napoleon led the French army and first declared war on Austria in northern Italy with great success.In the next two years, in order to fight back against the British, he attacked Egypt, and the pyramids witnessed the valor of the French soldiers.He also made many exciting events, which were published in domestic newspapers, which made people very excited to read, but he did not cause substantial harm to Britain.
In 1799, while Napoleon was in Egypt, Britain, Austria, and Russia once again formed an alliance against the French Republic. The French Revolution in 1799 seemed to pose a greater threat to the monarchy than in 1792.By then, French generals had suffered defeats in Europe.The French army, without Napoleon's command, was defeated and driven out of Italy, and their new republic fell with it.At this time the hero Napoleon had returned to France from Egypt.He became the embodiment of the army, and all French people supported him and worshiped the army he led.Napoleon's ambitions were equal to his fame and opportunities.
Soon the Directory was kicked out.The drafting of the new constitution was completed. Under the banner of the Republic, the new constitution made a series of regulations in line with a military dictator, and Napoleon assumed the first power.
As the first consul, Napoleon curry favor with Russia and reached a settlement in 1801 and 1802, defeated Austria for the second time on the battlefield, and won the negotiation with Britain.France is at peace with the world for the first time since 1792. "Liberty, equality, fraternity" France was saved from being surrounded by powerful enemies.
The general and emperor Napoleon was now a hero to the French. In 1802, the people elected him to be in power for life, and in 1804 they elected him as emperor.But France is not so much an empire as a republic.
Bonaparte, as Napoleon I, Emperor of France, didn't cancel all revolutions, he tried to complete them, he put all the powers of government in one person.From his reign to the present day, France has become a highly centralized state, whether it was formerly known as a kingdom, an empire, or a republic.
Statesman and diplomat Napoleon also admitted that he was not only a soldier, but also a statesman.He did not return the confiscated church property, but he restored some of the privileges of the priests, and to some extent reaffirmed the authority of the Pope.He created the Banque de France as part of an effort to reform the currency system; he allocated funds to the well-functioning National School, which later became the University of France.He built canals and roads, and repaired the city of Paris.He intended to restore the French colonial empire lost by Louis XV. In 1800 he forced Spain to cede most of Louisiana America to France, which was a good start.Before long, he tried to maintain French control of the island of Haiti, but he voluntarily relinquished the island in 1803, selling Louisiana to the United States that year.
Napoleon the legislator, with the help of legal experts, compiled and published several reform codes, which was a great and peaceful work.His compilations tease the law into a concise and clear system.These codes, though incomplete, embody the revolution's best achievements, such as civil equality, religious tolerance, and liberty for all.His legal system was called the "Code Napoleon," and was for a long time one of the best codes in the world.
Emperors and Conquistadors Before Napoleon came onto the scene, the leaders of the French Revolution declared their aim to overthrow absolutism and aristocratic privilege throughout Europe.Napoleon strongly agreed with this.But at the same time, he also understands that this is an excellent opportunity to make himself famous.
Therefore, Napoleon's autocratic rule symbolized war, not peace.War, in the minds of his subjects and soldiers, meant to bring liberty, equality and fraternity to all of Europe.In his mind, it also meant tameness and personal power.
More glorious victories During the period from 1805 to 1810, Napoleon fought many countries in Europe, and also achieved many brilliant victories.The Austrians, Prussians and Russians were all crushed by Napoleon's iron fist.On the ruins of the old dynasty he painted the new kingdom, and placed his kin on custom-made thrones.For example, he made one of his brothers king of a part of Germany, another of Spain, and a brother-in-law of southern Italy.But he is not only a tamer, but also a statesman.He brought various ideas of the French Revolution to European countries, including nationalist ideas.For Italy and Germany, he pointed out the direction of national unity.
His last big victory was in 1809, when Austria hoped to break away from Napoleon's rule, and was defeated in the battle of Wagram, and had to cede the land to Napoleon, and married the proud Habsburg princess Maria Luisa to him.
But the Battle of Wagram was Napoleon's last great victory.Excessive power made him hotheaded, and soon he was stretching his hands even longer.He began his career as a "born child of the revolution" and a preacher of the gospel of equality, but in the end he developed into a self-centered despot.He cost thousands of lives in struggles that could no longer justify themselves in the name of any liberty, equality, or fraternity.
His First Big Defeat From 1806 to 1810, Napoleon prepared to use a trade blockade known as the "Continental System" to contain Britain.He intended to prevent the transport of British goods to any part of Europe.This is very much, all his power expansion is very much.Russia and other countries began to accept British goods.So Napoleon led the army to invade Russia in 1810.But the Russians outwitted him.They withdrew before him and induced him to drive the eight hundred miles to the heart of Russia without stopping.At this moment, the city of Moscow where he was stationed was on fire.Exhausted by long marches and flank attacks, his army was trapped not only deep in the heart of Russia, but in the bitter cold of Russia.His far-flung withdrawal from Moscow was one of the most horrific episodes in history.Only a fraction of his "lions" made it back to the Rhine.In that horrible year, not only a million lives were lost, but Napoleon's glory was also lost.
Napoleon had tasted defeat before, as in 1789, when his French fleet was defeated by a British fleet under Lord Nelson at the mouth of the Nile, despite the help of Syria and Egypt. In 1805, Napoleon formulated an ambitious plan to land directly on Britain, but this battle made him taste the bitter fruit. The French fleet and its ally Spanish fleet were defeated again by Nelson at Trafalgar. .But Russia's deadly winter pushed Napoleon to his first land defeat.This was the beginning of his tragic end.
His second big defeat In October 1813, in the suburbs of Leipzig in Saxony, Napoleon suffered the second big defeat in his life.For three days his army fought against a coalition of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Austria, and others.The Battle of Leipzig is often referred to as the "Battle of the Nations" due to the many countries involved.Napoleon was defeated again.He was captured the following year and exiled to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean.
His third major defeat was in March 1815, just as diplomats were meeting in Vienna to destroy Napoleon and the fruits of the French Revolution. Napoleon fled from the island of Elba to France, and he called his old ministry together. , also recruited some recruits, and competed with Europe for another 3 days.But on June 100, at Waterloo, he was finally crushed.This time he was escorted to another small island, St. Helena, which is an island in the far South Atlantic Ocean, so that he never returned to France alive.
[-]. The Restoration of the Dynasty
The Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 advocated the restoration of the old order, which tried again to "put the past back on its throne".French revolutionary ideas were to be purged as much as possible.Napoleon destroyed old maps and drew new ones; he also abolished many princes, re-divided their territories, and installed new governments in these places and renamed them.Absolute regimes, even enlightened monarchies, have had some dire hurdles since 1789.After Napoleon fell from power, these monarchs began to be proud again.They were promoted to the stage and got their original property, although of course this was temporary.But political and social conflicts persist.
Louis XVIII in France In France, the important political and social innovations of the revolutionary period were allowed to survive.But there was another king in France—Louis XVIII.He was born into the Bourbon royal family and was the younger brother of Louis XVI.He was Louis XVIII, since the young son of Louis XVI, who died in 1795, was Louis XVII.Louis XVIII reigned until his death in 1824.
Italy and Germany Italy was divided into several duchies and kingdoms.The rich northern regions of Lombardy and Venice belonged to Austria.But the ideas of liberty, adopted from the French Revolution, and the ideas of solidarity and nationalism advocated by Napoleon were not forgotten.These ideas remained cherished by Italians until, many years later, Italy was liberated and united.
Napoleon defended unity over liberty.In Germany, he did a lot of work to merge many small states together and abolished the princes of these small states.The Congress of Vienna was more interested in the princes than in the people, and paid little attention to nature or the unity of nations.But in any case, some of the German princes were indifferently thrown aside, and Germany did not return to the many small states it had been before.Germany is no longer hundreds of small kingdoms, duchies and marquises. The Vienna Conference established 38 states and formed the German Federation.The German Confederation is a loose union, but it's better than no unity at all.This is only the first step towards true unity.
Almost all the old rulers and dynasties were restored, but the restoration was neither absolute nor long-term.Although Napoleon was selfish and regarded human life as nothing, he finally brought to Western Europe the positive things of the French Revolution that outlived Napoleon and the restored monarchs .
[-]. Permanent results
Many of the noble aims of the French Revolution were left unfulfilled, and its horror and misery are rather deplored, but it also achieved some permanent results, some of which were even of great value.
The Abolition of Feudal Privileges During the "August" of 1789, the excitement prompted the National Assembly to completely abolish many of the old privileges.Serfdom was abolished, feudal burdens abolished, priests and churches gave up tithes and all extra privileges.
The bourgeoisie and the town middle classes, freed from the heaviest taxes, are free to participate in politics and industry.Subsequently, royal despotism, domestic tariffs, and guilds were abolished, so that there were more opportunities for increasing wealth.
Farmers benefit the most from "August".From the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century, an obvious feature of French agriculture was the individual ownership of small farmers, which can be traced back to the "August" in 1789.
Economic and Social Innovation The National Assembly weakened the extra privileges and began to implement social and economic reforms.The National Convention then advanced by the same rules, ending black slavery, outlawing captivity for debt, and guaranteeing women the same property rights as men.A number of important initiatives have been implemented to reduce various inequalities of wealth.For example, the new inheritance law was adopted, which stipulates that no one can leave the inheritance to only one heir and exclude the rest of the heirs, and also requires all children to inherit the inheritance equally or as equally as possible.This law of inheritance made modern France famous throughout the European countries.
Many of the reforms of the Metric Convention of Weights and Measures were extreme.One of the regulations is that it is not allowed to call "Mr." but "Citizen". This reform is too big a fuss.Attempts to replace the old calendar with a new one, with the main aim of making historical Christianity forget, proved futile and short-lived.In order to facilitate calculations, a new decimal system of weights and measures was established, which is a great improvement over the old system.The new "metric system" is adopted by almost all civilized countries (except English-speaking countries).
Declaration of Rights Drafted in 1789, the Declaration of Rights soon acquired the same status in history as other great documents concerning human liberty, such as the British Magna Carta and the Declaration of Rights, the Dutch "Apology" of William the Reticent, the American Independence Declaration and Federal Constitution.It was (and is) one of the great and enduring achievements of the French Revolution.
The idea of equality The slogan of the French Revolution was "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity".Many evil deeds are committed in the name of freedom; equality is a dream that is neither clear nor locating, and that many people do not yearn for; fraternity is beautiful in theory, but it is difficult to realize; even Thus, democracy and liberty were still advanced by the French Revolution.When we talk about freedom, we refer to the freedoms that are protected within the scope and appropriate degree of the law; when we talk about democracy, we refer to the right of ordinary citizens to be the masters of their own affairs and freedom of speech in the government.Another idea that should be recognized is nationalism.This idea was emphasized by the French Revolution and spread throughout Europe by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Thoughts are seen in action Some people once said that the revolutionary French army was "the march of equality", and others said that the reason why the French bayonet is so powerful is because the knife itself has a mind.The above shows that the French people themselves are inspired by lofty goals, and that the peoples of other European countries have been influenced by their lofty ideals, and they have more or less accepted these ideas.The ideas of the French Revolution eventually revolutionized all of Western Europe.
Of course, these ideas are not new, they are a synthesis of ideas from the Revolution of Thought (without going back very far) and the American Revolution.The French Revolution brought them to Europe in a new and powerful light.
Antagonism between state and church One of the consequences of the French Revolution was the growing critique of Christian skepticism and the contradiction between state and church.Since then, such disputes have continued to be staged in France.
The Napoleonic Code Because Napoleon Bonaparte was "a child of the revolution," we attribute his activities—both good and bad—as fruits of the revolution.The massive killing of the young French (and others) during the 20 years of war did have far-reaching consequences for permanent woe.But on the other hand, we must never forget his great contribution to peace, the Napoleonic Code.
National Unity Napoleon only partially implemented one of the basic principles of the revolution, namely, the strengthening of nationalist consciousness.He helped peoples of the same language to move towards political unity in a realistic way.In France, he centralized power in the central government.In Italy and Germany, too, the governments he instituted were more or less models of national unity.In Europe, nationalism and democracy were also clearly promoted by the French Revolution.
(End of this chapter)
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