A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 3 The Age of Agriculture
[-]. The first farmers
A new era 8000 years ago, the people of Western Europe were still in the Paleolithic period, and they were the hunters who were able to draw pictures mentioned later in Chapter 1.In the Near East, a new age was gradually dawning, and human beings lived in greater comfort.New discoveries and new inventions brought new technologies, and civilization gradually revealed its dawn.This new period is usually called the "Neolithic Age".The beginnings of agriculture were such a distinctive feature of this period that it was better known as the "Age of Agriculture".

In the Near East, the age of agriculture began 7000 years ago, or more, and it never really ended.In this chapter, therefore, we describe only the beginning and some of the early developments of this new period.

Near East We will often refer to the Near East because this region was home to the first great civilizations.It used to be, and still is, the meeting point of the three continents of Europe, Asia and Africa.It is a large semicircular area around the Eastern Mediterranean on the map, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Syria, the Aegean Islands, the Greek Peninsula, and Crete.In Egypt and Mesopotamia, there are fertile alluvial soils and riverine plains, those black soils, which once brought sufficient food to the earliest agricultural countries.In Asia Minor, Cyprus and other places in the Near East, there are very rich copper mines, which laid the foundation for the earliest metallurgists to display their fists.Rivers also provided transportation for humans, who were able to navigate back and forth in canoes and boats.For sailors and merchants, the Eastern Mediterranean was a golden waterway for trade and exploration.

As we have seen, while the Near East gradually entered the agricultural age, Western Europe was still hovering in the fishing and hunting age (Paleolithic).In America, the ancestors of the Indian tribes were at a similar stage of life as in Western Europe, as in North Africa.But we know very little about this period in Central Africa, South Africa, and East and South Asia.

In the very early days of growing crops, the first farmers ate only wild berries or fruit they found, along with some wild vegetables and seeds.Maybe some seeds accidentally fell on the ground or near the hole, and were secretly covered by the soil.When they bloom and bear fruit, the wise ancients thought of planting some seeds nearby and waiting for a good harvest in the coming year.Of course, many trials and failures were undoubtedly made before the best harvest was obtained.But eventually in Egypt, Western Asia and Europe, people began to grow grains such as barley, wheat, peas and lentils.They then added soybeans, apples and other grains, fruits and vegetables.Thus began the real era of agriculture.People have figured out a method of storing grain by themselves, first drying the grain and grinding it into flour, then storing it, and then making it into unleavened bread.Bread became "the necessities of people's life", and agriculture was the basis of later developed civilization.

Domesticated Animals As plants gradually blossomed and bore fruit in fixed places, ancient hunters gradually became cultivators.In the Paleolithic period, for such a long period of time, the only way for people to obtain food was to rely on whether they could hunt wild animals or fish.When wild animals were scarce or rivers were dry, they were left to starve, sometimes to death.Only when they learned how to grow crops and domesticate animals, did they have a reliable food supply.

Perhaps the first animal to be domesticated was the dog.Those wild dogs roam around human settlements, eating human leftovers for a living.Over time, these wanderers became bolder, and after a long time in contact with people, their wildness gradually weakened.Gradually, the dog became a companion of human beings, a powerful helper for hunting, and a loyal friend of people.

Perhaps it was the experience of domesticating dogs that led people to domesticate other wild animals.It is also very possible that there were too many prey to eat at that time, and some people thought of feeding the remaining prey so that they could still eat meat when food was scarce in the future.For whatever reason, people began domesticating cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep.Therefore, people's meat supply is more reliable.At the same time, cows and goats also provided milk and goat milk.Some of the earliest shepherds made food from milk and cheese, which were even more important than meat.Studies have shown that the area where cattle and sheep were first domesticated was probably in West Asia or Central Asia, but domestication of cattle quickly spread to all parts of the world like sowing rice.

[-]. New inventions

Millstones and Axes In Chapter 1, we learned about certain inventions, especially the bow and arrow, which helped humans a lot during the Paleolithic period.Likewise, during the Neolithic period, more inventions benefited people.In fact, a very simple invention, such as the invention of the whetstone, turned Paleolithic into Neolithic.

This period of history is often referred to as the Neolithic period because stone tools were sharpened by grinding stones rather than striking them.The method of grinding and polishing appeared very early, but it was only applied to weapons and tools made of bone or horn.This method was applied to stone tools later.Such whetstones and whetstones are so familiar and simple to us that it is hard to believe that they have played such an important role in the development of man.With the millstone came the stone axe.The stone ax is also a familiar tool, but at the time it was new and exotic and changed the world.An important inventor mentioned in Chapter 1 was the first man in human history to tie a rough wooden handle to a hand axe.Later, the hand ax got bigger and bigger, and it became sharper and sharper, so it became an axe.It was this ax that brought the troglodytes out of the dank and dark caves, and enabled them to live in huts, in villages, in towns, and sail in ships on the seas.

If the function of the bow and arrow is to enable humans to capture prey, the function of the ax is to enable humans to control the forest in the process of civilization.Forests were an inexhaustible resource at that time, which had advantages and disadvantages for human development.Large forests are a hindrance to the growth of crops, but a boon for building houses and ships.And these advantages and disadvantages become easier to realize or avoid because of the appearance of the axe.

The original stone axes, although the edges were ground very sharply, had little cutting effect and were easily broken.But these axes are a great improvement over the old handaxes whose edge came out by striking.Later, the ax developed into a metal, which can not only be used as a tool, but also a powerful weapon.For what it's worth, the ax is a very great invention.And the reason why it is so sharp and effective is the rough whetstone.

Wheels and carts In the process of domesticating livestock, humans also enslaved them. Dogs, donkeys, and bulls were all used to carry goods.And the man who invented the wheel and built the first car freed man and beast from the burden.After the carts were made, more livestock were raised to pull them.Pulling a heavy cart is often as difficult as carrying a load, but the wheels double the efficiency of animal power.Except in special cases such as very rough roads or very steep hillsides, cattle or dogs can pull much more goods than they can carry.

Cars with wheels also make it easier for people to travel.The wagon allows the farmer to harvest his harvest more quickly, and the merchant can use it to load more goods.Kings and other dignitaries preferred to travel in carriages, which looked very majestic.Horse-drawn chariots were even more formidable on the battlefield, but the fast horse-drawn chariots we know did not appear until much later.Once the wheel entered the long river of history, it became very popular and widely used in various fields.

The skills of farmers

Looms and linen are in West Asia, where a wild plant with blue flowers grows.The plant has long stems covered with tough fibers.The stems of these plants are soaked in water and then crushed so that they can be drawn into strands of fiber and spun into fine threads.This wild plant is flax, and the cloth woven from flax threads is called linen.

Linen is probably the oldest cloth in the world.Thousands of years ago, some farmers and their wives discovered the power of flax and invented the technology of weaving linen and spinning thread.Flax was used not only as warming cloth, but also as twine, twine, and fishing nets, as well as sailcloth for boats.

Spinning technology was extremely simple at first.A small hammer is tied to one end of the flax fiber, allowing it to hang down naturally to straighten the flax fiber.Then turn the hammer so that the flax fiber is twisted into a thread.Likewise, the operation of the loom was initially very simple.In New Mexico and other parts of the Americas, the local Indians simply combined some sticks and flax cords for weaving, very similar to the original looms in the Near East.But like other early inventions, the loom played a very important role in human development.

Pottery and oil painting In the long river of history, the art of pottery seems to be a scarce subject, but it has some unique marks.For example, when we find some pottery fragments from the remains of an ancient settlement, it can almost be concluded that the ancient people living here have entered the agricultural age from the fishing and hunting age.Pottery seems to have grown up with agriculture, perhaps because these pots and pans were very useful to the ancients who needed to store grains frequently.Another point is that the patterns and carvings on the pottery all carry the characteristics of local customs.The variety of patterns and styles found on ancient pottery is often the key to historians' understanding of the history of that era, such as the migration of various ethnic groups and the prosperity of ancient commerce and trade.

Most importantly, pottery became one of the main outlets for human pursuit of art.Early potters would leave some ideas and things in their minds in pottery by firing clay.Originally, pottery was only for convenience, not for beauty.But then gradually a way of making it appeared, using a substance, such as graphite, to polish the surface of the pottery, so that it exudes a dark and shiny luster.Probably in Egypt or Asia Minor, a new method of making pottery was discovered.During the firing process, a soil containing iron oxide is infiltrated, so that the surface of the fired pottery will show a rich red brick color.Because of its special color, this kind of terracotta is widely spread in the Near East.

In order to better decorate pottery, potters carve various simple patterns on the soft clay before firing.Over time, they began to depict pictures in the true sense on those more delicate bottles and jars. These complex and delicate pictures of people, ships, beasts, battles, etc. became the masterpieces of painting art.

[-]. Houses and ships
We have already noted that the invention of the ax facilitated the construction of houses, boats, and vehicles.

Construction of houses In order to avoid the harassment of large wild animals, the ancients built some houses on trees or built fences around the houses.The houses along the lake are built on the water, also out of safety considerations.Some long and straight tree trunks are sharpened and smashed into the water, through the soft mud layer under the water to the hard soil layer, and the tops of the pillars are exposed to the water.It may take hundreds of these trunks tied together and nailed to a site before a house can be built securely on it.However, in order to save manpower and material resources, ordinary families often only use a few or dozens of such timbers to support the house.

In many parts of the Near East, the houses of ordinary families are often just huts made of branches and soil mixed together for convenience.This kind of hut is first woven into a rough house frame by branches and thin branches, and then a thick layer of soil is coated on the surface of the frame. After the soil is dried by the scorching sun, the house will take shape.However, in the same area, the materials used to build palaces and temples are quite different. Some are built with wood, and later the more durable stones and bricks are commonly used as building materials.So burning bricks and masonry has also become an important technology.Bricks were first dried by the sun, and later by fire.

Ships in the early days of shipbuilding generally used wood as a frame, and then wrapped them with the skins of large animals to prevent water.There are also large baskets densely woven of branches and straw, coated with something like asphalt to prevent water from seeping in.But after humans became good at using fire, they burned large trees to a certain length, and then used special means to burn out the middle to make small boats or canoes.Later, humans had knives and axes made of stone or metal that were sharpened with millstones, and they were able to manufacture not only canoes and boats, but also huge ships that relied on oars and sails.

Four-wheeled vehicles have played a very important role in spreading culture, and in a sense, ships have greater value.

[-]. Copper and Commerce

The discovery of copper dates back to the agricultural period of the Neolithic age.Perhaps one night some hunter or herdsman inadvertently lit a fire with stones containing copper, and was surprised to find some bright red beads rolling out of the ashes.If so, that person may have inadvertently made a major discovery.Regardless of how this process happened, copper was already being used in Egypt and Western Asia 6000 years ago.For a long time, due to its soft texture, the output was not very large, so that copper was only used for decorations and handicrafts, and people mainly relied on stones to make tools and weapons.With the discovery of copper deposits near Mount Sinai in the Red Sea region, and later in large quantities in Asia Minor and elsewhere, the origin and production of copper increased, and its uses expanded.Coppersmiths in the Near East gradually began to use copper to make knives, axes and other tools.

Because the texture of copper is too soft, it is not easy to make hard knives and axes.As time progressed, it was discovered that if some tin was added to copper, a mixture was formed, which we call bronze, and its hardness was much higher than that of tin or copper.This makes bronze ideal for sharpened weapons.As a result, weapons such as knives, axes, and spears were switched to bronze.

The use of copper and bronze enabled the development of prospecting, mining and commerce.In the early days of copper use, copper mines were mined at Mount Sinai and in Asia Minor.Prospectors in droves went everywhere in search of new copper deposits.Copper deposits have been mined in Cyprus, Crete, Spain, Italy, Great Britain, and other countries.Works of copper and bronze also spread from Cyprus to Syria, from Spain to Western Europe, and from Italy to Central Europe.In short, copper and bronze began to be traded in various places, and the extent of the trading area is quite amazing.

[-]. Home and town

When hunters and herders had to move from place to place to hunt game or find pasture, their world had little of the "home" we modern people think of.But with the planting of crops that allowed them to settle down and build a permanent house, real "home" life began.Several families often built their houses together for some reason, thus gradually forming a village.Those villages with convenient and safe locations have attracted more and more people to settle down.These villages gradually became towns and cities.In the centers of these towns and cities trade flourished in the manufacture of tools, weapons, cloth, and pottery to satisfy the needs of the people.In order to protect the life and property of urban residents, the government and army of the country were formed.While gradually meeting people's material needs, some people began to be interested in some exquisite items, and artworks also developed accordingly.These people had enough wealth to build magnificent houses and temples.They have enough leisure time to appreciate the exquisite works of art created by artists.

In this way, as human beings multiply, civilization and culture also grow.But without the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, people must still be hunters, scattered all over the world.Nowadays, millions of farmers, entertainers, and businessmen can live in one city at the same time, but the scope of this city could only support a few thousand hunters before.

Civilization is established With the establishment of the family, civilization follows.The family is the center of the life, work and worship of the few.Larger families, often related by blood, are found in larger areas like villages, towns, and cities.Likewise, such large areas became centers of their life, work, worship, and art.These places are also the centers of people's trading activities.The exchange of goods also tends to facilitate the exchange of ideas, skills, and institutions.However, these highly developed civilizations must rely on sufficient food and material wealth before they can develop.The first farmers provided the material wealth necessary for the development of early civilizations.

Time and place We can think of the Neolithic age, the period of agriculture, as the earliest stage in the development of civilization.In the Near East, this phase began about 7000 years ago and did not enter another phase until the use of copper was introduced more than 6000 years ago.The Near East is the "leader" of civilization development, followed by East and South Asia.America, on the other hand, was isolated from the world because it failed to communicate with other regions, but in the tropics of America, a rich agricultural life also developed. This history will be left for a later chapter.Europe was slightly behind the Near East, and these farming techniques and some major inventions spread first throughout southern and central Europe, and then gradually spread to northern Europe.

(End of this chapter)