A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 35 The Liberation and Unification of Italy
Disunity in Italy The Italian people have encountered many obstacles and long delays in their relentless struggle for national unity and democracy. The revolutionary movement that shocked Europe in 1848, drove Metternich away, and gave hope to Italians and others, retreated under the suppression of tyranny, and Italy remained only a "geographical term."

The regions of Lombardy and Venice were still ruled by the Austrian Empire, administered by officials sent from Vienna.In central Italy, the principalities of Parma, Modena, and Tosle were still ruled by relatives of the Austrian Emperor.The Papal States, including Rome, are controlled by the Pope.Southern Italy was ruled by a Bourbon king, defended by Austrian troops in times of crisis.

In addition to the Papal State, there is only one country in Italy that is not under foreign rule. This is the Kingdom of Sardinia, which owns the northwest corner of Italy itself and includes Sardinia in the Mediterranean Sea.

The desire for unity and liberty The Italian peasantry, the majority of the population, were perhaps the least affected by the theories of the French Revolution, but even they opposed the Austrian methods of undermining those social reforms and marches towards unity that Napoleon had brought about.They also objected to the heavy taxes that had to be paid in favor of foreign rulers.

The Italian bourgeoisie, the middle-class merchants, went even further.Their minds were filled with ideas of civil rights, constitutional government, and national patriotism.The working class, which had become important in the northern Italian cities because of the Industrial Revolution, united with the bourgeoisie in a common cause.Even some nobles and priests advocated political reform and national independence.

[-]. Mazzini, Garibaldi and Gioberti

Before 1848, three Italians were already strongly awakening the national feeling of their countrymen: Mazzini, Garibaldi and Gioberti.

Mazzini Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872), a Genoese, a lawyer and a writer, has been using his mouth and pen to promote the theory of the nation-state.With eloquence and zeal he persuaded his countrymen that patriotism must be their religion, and that they had boundless faith in the fate and grandeur of Italy.He formed the Young Italy Party with the goal of liberating Italy from brutal domination at home and abroad and uniting it under a republican government.

Although Mazzini was somewhat impractical, his enthusiasm and sincerity aroused a patriotic fire in Italy, and Italian youth established a liberal party.

Garibaldi Joseph Garibaldi (1807-1882) was born in Nice and left home to become a navigator and adventurer.He joined Mazzini's Young Italy party and was sentenced to death for his rebellion against the Sardinian king.He fled to South America, where he joined the Italian Legion and fought for many years to overthrow the authoritarian government.Wearing a red shirt and a wide-brimmed hat, he became a legendary hero.In addition to having the same enthusiasm as Mazzini, Garibaldi also had bravery and amazing behavior, which made young people emulate.

The revolution that broke out in 1848, of course, drew Gioberti back to Europe.

Gioberti Catholic priest Vincent Gioberti (1801-1852), originally a subject under the rule of the King of Sardinia, was forced to live in exile for many years because of his political advocacy of liberalism.His books have a strong appeal to the upper class, especially the patriots among the clergy.Unlike Mazzini and Garibaldi, he disapproved of using force as a means of achieving national freedom and unity.Although liberal and democratic in thought, he did not join the Republican Party of Mazzini and Garibaldi.

Gioberti urged the pope to stand up and direct liberal and patriotic activities, and to form a federation of Italian princes. When Pius IX was elected Pope in 1846, Gioberti's dream was once hoped to become a reality.He sparked reforms in the papal government; he supported the cause of the nation-state.

The Italian Revolution of 1848 By 1848 Italian public opinion was fully prepared for the revolutionary experiment.At the beginning of the year, popular uprisings forced several of the main Italian rulers to draw up a constitution, a written constitution that offered the people great freedom but was not democratic.

[-]. The Anti-Austrian Uprising
During those fateful years of 1848, riots broke out in the provinces of Austrian Italy.While the entire Austrian Empire was shaken by revolution and Metternich was once again expelled from Vienna, the Italians in Lombardy and Venice fought for their freedom.The Pope sent troops to support them.The King of the Two Sicilies and the Grand Duke of Tuscany also sent troops to support them.Mazzini instilled patriotism in the hearts of the National Volunteers.Garibaldi joined the fray with his Red Shirts against the hateful Austrians.

Surprisingly, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, declared war on Austria and declared himself military leader of Italy.It looked as if liberation and unification were on the way.

Parties and Politics But Charles Albert was not only not a great statesman, he was also not an effective general.He did nothing to allay the panic and jealousy of some Italian princes, and suffered the defeat of the Austrians.Mazzini's followers gave him only half-hearted help, fearing that a victory for the Sardinian king would weaken their party.He was also abandoned by the Pope, who worried that if he loved Italy too much, the Church would lose its influence outside Italy.

By the end of the Revolution of 1848, the Pope had been intimidated by the movement, relying on the King of the Two Sicilies for patronage.Mazzini immediately created a republic in Rome, but his radical rule caused many Italian patriots to turn against him and paralyzed the national defense. In 1849, the Austrians and the King of Sardinia fought at Novara, and Austria won a decisive victory.Charles Albert abdicated and his son Victor Emmanuel II became king; Sardinia made a truce with Austria and agreed to withdraw from Lombardy.

Restoration of the old order The Battle of Novara restored the Austrians to their despotism in the Italian provinces and allowed the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the King of the Two Sicilies to abolish the constitution they had ratified in 1848.At the same time, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the leader of the Second French Republic, in order to win the favor of French Catholics, sent a French army to Rome to overthrow Mazzini's Republic and restore Pope Pius IX.

Italy remained disunited, controlled by foreigners and ruled by a dictatorship. The Revolution of 1848 was a lamentable failure.

The long-term results have four noteworthy results: (1) further aroused people's enthusiasm for national unity and free government; (2) it has become clear that the Pope cannot be expected to be the leader of the patriotic movement; (3) practice has proved that , Mazzini and the Republicans cannot be followed as actual leaders; (4) The outstanding performance of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia proves that he is the most suitable candidate for the national leader.

[-]. Cavour and his King

The center of the whole nation - Sardinia Among the princes in Italy, only King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia still adheres to the 1848 constitution and continues to fight against Austria.More and more Italians regard Sardinia as the core of Italy's freedom and unity.Giobetti predicted that the liberator of Italy would be the young Victor Emmanuel.

Count Cavour Count Cavour (1810-1861) was Victor Emmanuel's most capable helper.He became Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Sardinia in 1851.For the next 10 years, he basically held these two positions, laying the foundation for a new nation-state.

Cavour has confidence in the people of his country and is very confident."I can't speak, but I can create an Italy," he said.

[-]. Cavour and his country

Cavour believed that he could cut off the clutches of foreign tyranny and at the same time unite the Italians as a national whole, so he formulated a detailed plan with great foresight.

His domestic policy Cavour had studied and traveled in Britain in his early years, so he admired Britain very much, so after he became prime minister, he followed the example of Britain to formulate the governance plan of the Kingdom of Sardinia.He faithfully supported the Constitution of 1848, according to which the king ruled but not ruled; the ministers of the government were ostensibly appointed by the king, but in fact they were responsible to Parliament; The Senate consists of an elected House of Representatives.However, as in Britain at the time, only a small number of people had the right to stand for election to parliament.These voters are men of the upper class and some capitalists.

Economically, Cavour followed the British example.He tried his best to promote the prosperity of the bourgeoisie, and all restrictions on commerce and manufacturing were abolished.In other words, the free trade policy has replaced the tariff protection policy.He reformed the tax system and built roads, canals and railways.

In matters of religion, Cavour sought to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church, which he felt would be a detriment to his liberal ideas and plans for the emancipation and unification of Italy.So he suppressed all monk orders that did not engage in education, missionary or charity, and confiscated the property of those suppressed.He advocated the separation of church and state so that "a free church can be had in an autonomous country."

Cavour's intervention in the Church of Sardinia widened the rift between him and the Pope.Since then, the Pope has expressed opposition to all Italian unification movements centered on the Kingdom of Sardinia.

His foreign policy Cavour put the Kingdom of Sardinia in a secure position, hoping to liberate Italy from Austrian rule.After experiencing the painful lessons in 1848-1849, he firmly believed that a small kingdom of Sardinia could not defeat Austria and unify Italy, and he needed foreign aid.He thinks France is the best help.He knew that Louis Napoleon, who became Emperor of France after 1852, had an emotional concern for "oppressed nations."He also knew that Louis was obsessed with fame and fame.

The Crimean War Cavour thus began to isolate Austria and help the Kingdom of Sardinia win the favor of Louis Napoleon.He brought the Kingdom of Sardinia into the Crimean War between Britain and France against Russia in 1855.Italian soldiers performed very well in battle, and at the Paris Peace Conference in 1856, Cavour also poured into the ears of British and French representatives about the poverty of Italy and the tyranny of Austria.He gained the sympathy of England and the friendship of Louis Napoleon.

The alliance with France, Cavour, brought the relationship with France closer and closer. Until 1850, Louis Napoleon secretly agreed to assist the Kingdom of Sardinia to drive the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venice, but Cavour agreed to expel the Sardinian people from Lombardy and Venice. Vajnese was ceded to France as a reward.Meanwhile, Cavour, along with some of Italy's leaders, was involved in a secret program against foreign domination.

The first attempt to liberate and unify Italy in the Franco-Austrian War of 1849 failed. Ten years later, all the preparations were made for the second great attempt, and it was all Cavour's work.

Alarmed by Italy's apparent military preparations, Austria declared war on Sardinia in 1859.Louis Napoleon immediately declared war on Austria, and French troops crossed the Alps to join Victor Emmanuel's army.When the French and Sardinians attacked the Austrians in Lombardy, uprisings broke out in the three principalities of Tuscany, Bama, and Modena, as well as the Pope, and people tried to overthrow the duke's rule.After the uprising broke out, the dukes of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena all fled.Cavour controlled these three duchies as well as parts of the Papal States.

At the same time, in the summer of 1859, the Franco-San allied forces achieved great success in Magenta and Soferino, driving the Austrians from Lombardy back to the Venice area.

Sardinia's Harvest Louis Napoleon, seeing Cavour occupying several principalities in central Italy, suddenly stopped participating in the war, and the Italian liberation war was thus suspended.However, according to the peace treaty of 1860, Sardinia retained Bama, Modena, Tuscany and a region of the Papal States (Romagna); it also acquired Lombardy from Austria.France received Savoy and Nice.Austria still owns the region of Venice, Trento and Trieste.

Other Harvests As soon as one war ended, another war broke out. In 1860, Garibaldi received Cavour's secret help and led 1000 patriotic volunteers—the famous "Red Shirts"—from Genoa to attack southern Italy.He landed in Sicily, and the natives immediately greeted him as a hero who abolished the tyranny of the Bourbon dynasty.He crossed the sea to Italy, occupied Naples, and defeated the troops of the King of the Two Sicilies.In five months the whole of southern Italy was conquered by him.As a result, Garibaldi's reputation became quite high, allowing him to become the dictator of Naples and Sicily, but he abandoned his personal interests, only thinking of a unified Italy, and handed over all the conquests to Victor Emmanuel hands.

In this way, the territory of the Kingdom of Sardinia expanded from northern Italy to the south; and Cavour, in order to connect the north and the south, occupied another large part of the Papal State, leaving only Rome under the papal secular rule. the city and its small suburbs.

Kingdom of Italy In 1861, all but two regions of Italy were liberated and united under the leadership of the King of Sardinia.These two areas were the Papal States of Rome, secured by Louis Napoleon and garrisoned by French troops; the other was the area of ​​Venice, Trento, and Trieste, which were still occupied by Austria.

In this year, Victor Emmanuel gave up the title of King of Sardinia and adopted the title of King of Italy. The Sardinian constitution of 1848 has now been extended to the enlarged nation-state; the first parliament of united Italy was held in Turin.

Cavour's Death It was also during this famous year that Cavour passed away.His death is a very great loss for Italy.Because there are still many problems that urgently need his skills and prestige.But the important task of unifying Italy and forming a constitutional government had been carried on to such an extent that others could immediately continue and complete it.

The Merger of Venice In 1866, Italy formed an alliance with Prussia, and took advantage of the outbreak of war between Prussia and Austria (the Seven Weeks War) to attack Austria.Despite the defeat of the Italian army, the Prussian war machine achieved a quick and decisive victory in Germany, and Austria had to cede to Italy most of Venice, including the proud ancient city of Venice.

Austria was allowed to retain the Italian cities of Trento and Trieste, and several other favorable points, but the acquisition of the territory of Venice was an important step towards the completion of Italian unification.

[-]. Rome and Italy

But Italy without Rome is like the human body without a heart.We know that Rome was the heart of ancient Italy.Italy is waiting for Rome, but fortunately the waiting time is not very long.

4 years later, in 1870, another war broke out in Europe, this one between Prussia and France, giving Italy a chance to take Rome.The Prussian invasion of France removed the French defenses that had protected the Pope for several years from Rome.Victor Emmanuel immediately attacked the Papal States while the French were withdrawing, taking Rome.Pope Pius IX protested vehemently and shut himself up in his court, the Vatican.But Italy did not interfere with him again.But by the beginning of the following year, Rome became the capital of a free and united Italy.

Delayed Democracy In 1871, Italy was a united country with a constitutional government, but it was not a democracy.In its hesitant advance, democracy has encountered serious obstacles of all kinds.It took many years for these obstacles to be removed.

Barriers of poverty and illiteracy For many years, only the rich and those who could read and write were allowed to vote or hold office.These institutions prevented many from voting, and since most Italians were propertyless, almost three-quarters of the population in 1871 could not read or write.Even in 1901, almost half of the population was illiterate.Such a system undoubtedly inspires people with ideals to work hard, work and study.At the same time, millions of farmers and shop assistants have no right to directly participate in politics.The bourgeoisie and the upper class are only a small part of the Italian people, but they control and govern the government.

Another serious obstacle to Italian democracy was the long-running conflict between the Italian monarchy and the Pope.As mentioned above, the conflict began in 1848 and reached its apogee in 1870 when the king captured Rome.Pope Pius IX and his successors were deeply hurt and shut themselves up in the Vatican, refusing any friendly relations with the government.They willingly made themselves prisoners of the Vatican court.The pope is often referred to as "the prisoner of the Vatican".This situation continued until recently.There was a time when all good Catholics in Italy were forbidden to stand for elections, or hold any office under the king.

Bourgeois oligarchy After 1871, since the illiterate and the poor were excluded from politics, and ardent Catholics among the upper classes and bourgeoisie refused to vote or hold public office, the Italian government naturally fell into the hands of a group of anti-Catholics. in the hands of the bourgeoisie.

Results of Oligarchy Italy's middle-class rulers did everything they could to solve the problem their own way.They followed the example of France in centralizing the powers of a national government.They planned a unified public education system, but they did not implement it well.They did a lot to bring the backward regions of southern Italy to the same social and economic level as the advanced regions of the north.The nation laid and managed thousands of miles of new railroads, which became not only the arteries of unifying trade and travel, but also an invaluable means of unifying the nation's culture.

Roads were built, ports improved, and land surveys began.In Naples, Palermo, and Messina, as in the prosperous cities of Lombardy and Tuscany, the factory system was encouraged.The merchant marine was subsidized by the government.In fact, everything the government does is aimed at developing industry and commerce, and increasing the welfare of the bourgeoisie.

The "powerful" Italian government has always been inspired by the national patriotism that rose during the unification period from 1848 to 1870, dreaming of helping modern Italy restore the sacred dignity of the ancient Roman Empire.Italy must not only be a free and united country, but also a "powerful country".To this end, a large navy was established, and the army expanded and reorganized.Italy made every effort to catch up with other powers in the scramble for overseas colonies.

Not long after the Italian people of the Triple Alliance had been freed and united, they set out to bring other peoples under Italian rule.For many years, they have been hoping to obtain Tunisia, which is across the sea from Sicily in northern Africa, which is the ancient Carthage.In this matter they were blocked by France.As a result, the anti-French voice of the people continued to rise, and an extremely strange thing happened: Italy formed a close alliance with its former enemies Austria and Germany.The famous Triple Alliance lasted from 1882 until 1915.

Italy's imperialist tripartite alliance made Italy shoulder a heavier burden of armaments and taxes.In addition, when the alliance lasted, Italy could not obtain Trento and Trieste from Austria, so it could not complete the unification of the country.Trento and Trieste were "unrecovered" for a long time.

In addition, the Triple Alliance also encouraged the Italian government to persist in the useless plan of seizing the colonies, wasting a lot of human and financial resources.Italy acquired two colonies in tropical Africa, Eritrea and Somalia, but it failed to conquer Abyssinia, and at Adova in 1896 its army was completely defeated.In the war with Turkey in 1911-1912, Tripoli in North Africa was conquered by it, and it also occupied 12 small Greek islands in the Aegean Sea.These colonial adventures did little to benefit Italy, but added fuel to the national patriotic fire, and at the same time allowed some businessmen and government officials to benefit from public money.

TAXATION AND IMMIGRATION Unfortunately, many government officials engage in fraud and enrich themselves with public money.In order to support such corruption, pay huge military expenses, the cost of conquering colonies, and public utility construction costs, and at the same time repay the arrears left during the liberation struggle, a large amount of taxes were imposed on the people.Italy soon surpassed all European countries in taxes, and the taxes on the peasants and odd-workers were the heaviest.

In order to avoid military service, avoid heavy taxes, and find a new opportunity for life, many lower-class Italians began to move away from home and to the United States.It is estimated that between 1871 and 1914, Italy lost about 600 million citizens, all permanently settled abroad, mainly in the United States, Argentina and Brazil.

People's Protests While many Italians were away from home, many remaining Italians raised their voices against the government: (1) ardent Catholics attacked the government for suppressing the Church and failing to aid the peasants; (2) Mazzini and Garry The Boddy partisans retained a small republican party, and they advocated turning the monarchy into a republic; (3) as the factory system was introduced and the labor problem gradually intensified, the Socialist Party gradually hardened and advocated radical reform; (4) Some extremists advocate anarchism.Victor Emmanuel's successor, King Humbert, was assassinated by an anarchist in 1900.

The gradual gain of democracy, the Italian government, frightened by the voices of dissatisfaction, reluctantly made some concessions.The electorate was expanded in 1882, but it was not until 1912 that all Italian men were granted the right to vote and hold public office. Since 1905, when the Pope eased restrictions on political participation, devout Catholics have joined the movement for political democracy and religious freedom as much as anyone else.

Social Legislation To further alleviate popular discontent, the Italian government passed laws to aid farmers and factory workers.Workers are insured against industrial accidents, sickness and old age.Trade unions have been legalized.Cooperatives that run banks, buy and sell wholesale, and run agriculture are all encouraged.By 1914, Italy had become a democracy using the political machine for the benefit of society.

But Italian democracy has not diminished national patriotism.Trento and Trieste remained "unrecovered".Their very names have a power to call peoples together.

(End of this chapter)