A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 41 International Anarchy

Modern history narrates the history of progress in all aspects.In the 1914 years leading up to 125, the peoples of Europe and America achieved astonishing feats in building machines, gaining democracy, and extending their control over other continents.But they failed at one thing.The greatest tragedy in modern history is the failure to replace power with justice in international relations.Disputes are still settled by killing each other.

The advancement of civilization does not abolish war, but simply makes it more terrible.Scientists and inventors have devised even deadlier weapons of destruction.Industry equips the navy and army with bigger cannons.Democracy A powerful army formed by citizens has replaced the small number of mercenaries of old.Europe, the most advanced continent, lost some 1790 million men between 1913 and 450.

[-]. Why do modern countries go to war?
There are various reasons why modern countries continue to wage war, among which the biggest factor is international anarchy.

(1) INTERNATIONAL ANARCH.Anarchy is a state in which there is no government to enforce law and maintain order.For example, if a country has no government, no police, everyone can do whatever they want, and everyone must carry a gun to protect themselves, this is anarchy.

At present, this is precisely the state of affairs between countries.Every country can do what it wants or dares to do, because there is no international government that makes laws for these countries and enforces all countries to obey them.States are like people without laws, armed to the teeth, and obeying no law or authority.This is what we call international anarchy.

Efforts Against Anarchy Prior to the World War of 1914, attempts to replace international anarchy with law and peace were not entirely successful.In the Middle Ages, the Christian Church tried to prevent wars, but the Church was not strong enough to prevent all conflicts, especially in the later period.Russian Tsar Alexander created the "Holy Alliance" to maintain peace in 1815, and Metternich formed the Quadruple Alliance for the same purpose, but it was all in vain.

After 1848, the great powers held frequent conferences to discuss international disputes.This approach to international cooperation is often referred to as "European coordination".

International conferences have been held in Paris, Berlin, and London in order to resolve issues concerning Turkey and the Balkan countries. Between 1884 and 1885, conferences held in Berlin regulated general guidelines for acquiring colonies in Africa. In 1900, the great powers cooperated to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China.This cooperation has undoubtedly prevented some wars, but it has not prevented them completely.

One of the most famous attempts by the Hague Conference to end international anarchy was that of Russia's Tsar Nicholas II in 1898-1899.He invited all nations to send representatives to The Hague to seek peace, and the Hague Conference was held in 1899.Since countries including Germany opposed the reduction of naval and army armaments, the meeting did not achieve much in this regard.However, an international arbitration court has been established in The Hague, and disputing countries can submit international disputes to the court for adjudication.A code of laws was drawn up at this meeting to prevent unnecessary cruelty in warfare, but these laws were not enforced.

In 1907, the Second Peace Conference was held in The Hague, but international anarchy still prevailed. The war between Italy and Turkey in 1911-1912, and the two wars between the Balkan countries and Turkey in 1912 and 1913, all show that the Hague Conference did not achieve much.

(2) Territorial disputes.The second cause of war is territorial disputes between countries. The Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 drew borders that were bound to cause disputes, regardless of national sentiment, so that Germany, Italy, and Belgium had to use force to win their freedom.After these countries gained independence, there were still disputed territories that threatened peace.For example, Italy also wants to acquire some places occupied by Austria.France hopes to reconquer Alsace-Lorraine.In the Balkans, as well as elsewhere in Eastern Europe, there are still some sore spots.

Territorial disputes might not threaten peace if every country recognized national autonomy, allowing people in all disputed provinces to vote by referendum.Referendums allow people in disputed places to decide which country they want to belong to.There were several instances of plebiscites in the mid-19th century, but none after 1871.

(3) Neo-mercantilism.Another cause of the war was the revival of old nineteenth-century mercantilist ideas, especially the idea that a national government should protect and enable its citizens to do business at home and abroad.This is what gives rise to tariff protection and imperialism.It would not be an exaggeration to say that all the wars of modern times have been caused by selfish and powerful businessmen seeking to make a profit.Some wars, such as the Opium War in China, broke out mainly because of commercial interests.

This new mercantilism is called "neo-mercantilism".

(4) National honor. The modern notion of "national honor" also stands in the way of maintaining peace. A theory of "national honor" prevailed in the 19th century. All nation-states must have absolute sovereignty and should not be subject to any form of external control.Newspapers preached that it was the duty of all patriots to fight for the country's "national honor," whether the country's stance was right or wrong. "Whether it's right or wrong, it's my country", this is the motto of extreme patriots.

(5) "Scientific" Justification of War.The belligerent spirit of the modern state is also strengthened by the teaching that war is a good thing, which means that a strong and progressive country defeats a weak and backward country.This belief stems from a misunderstanding of the scientific theory of plant and animal evolution - Darwinism.Although it is wrong to apply the theory of evolution to war, the militaristic idea of ​​keeping large armies ready for battle is a powerful reason to wage war.Prussia expanded its army and fought Austria in 1866 and France in 1870.Prussia's success in war led Austria, France, Japan, Russia, and Italy to adopt this system of extensive military training.All countries believe that their own military is for self-defense, and the military of neighboring countries is for invasion.This means that all countries have doubts and fears about their neighbors.

(7) Navalism. "Navalism" is the twin brother of militarism.When a powerful country expands its navy, other powers start to panic and start expanding their own navy.From 1898 to 1914, Germany began to build a huge fleet, and Britain regarded Germany as a possible enemy and a threat to British maritime hegemony.However, the British navy is equivalent to the sum of the naval power of any two countries.

(8) Secret diplomacy.The last cause of war is covert diplomacy.Ministers and ambassadors of different countries often signed agreements in secret, refusing to disclose the terms of secret agreements and alliances.Ordinary citizens never know when they will be called upon to shoulder their guns.

The chances of war are multiplied because besides often fighting for their own quarrels, they are often drawn into wars by the quarrels of their allies.

[-]. Secret Diplomacy and Crisis
To understand how covert diplomacy produced the largest war in history, one has to go back to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.

Bismarck's diplomacy Bismarck took Alsace-Lorraine from France in 1871, turning France into Germany's sworn enemy.However, as long as Bismarck remained Chancellor of the German Empire, the danger of France daring to seek opportunities for revenge was very small.Because Germany's army is the most powerful in the world.

Triple Alliance Also, Germany had a strong alliance, while France was initially isolated.Bismarck formed a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882.The famous Triple Alliance lasted until World War I.Russia was also persuaded by Bismarck to sign a secret defensive alliance with Germany.

The Franco-Russian Alliance In 1890, the young Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Bismarck from his post and did not continue to sign the treaty between Bismarck and the Tsar. In 1892, Russia became an ally of France.If France is attacked by Germany, Russia will support France; similarly, if Russia is attacked, France will send troops to support.

The Anglo-French Entente Second, France sought friendship from Britain, although it had recently become a fierce competitor in Africa.France and Britain signed an agreement in 1904, which recognized British control of Egypt, and Britain also promised not to oppose French claims in Morocco.This is the beginning of the "close agreement", or the beginning of mutual understanding between Britain and France.

The Anglo-Russian Treaty In 1907 Britain signed a similar treaty with France's ally, Russia.England and Russia, formerly jealous enemies in Asia, and especially in Persia, have now dissolved their estrangement.England was united by an Entente with France and Russia, with whom France had a firm alliance.The bloc formed by Britain, France, and Russia is often referred to as the Triple Entente.

Japan's status The Triple Entente also relied on additional help from Japan. In 1902, Britain established a defensive alliance with Japan. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, the defensive alliance was consolidated, and Japan signed agreements with Russia and France.

Italy's status There is also a secret understanding between Italy and the Tripartite Agreement.Although it remained a member of the Triple Alliance, it had secret agreements with France, the former wanting to conquer Tripoli and the latter wanting to seize Morocco.If war breaks out between Germany and France, Italy will remain neutral.

The balance of power among the great powers The Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance seem to be a very balanced "balance of power".As one member expands his army, or launches a new warship, the other becomes tense, feeling that its safety is threatened.From 1904 to 1914, the naval forces of both sides began to increase at an alarming rate, until both sides were crumbling under the heavy burden.

The worst feature of the international crisis "balance of power" is its instability.There will be a "crisis" every other year or so, and the two alliances have reached a state of war. Dangerous acts in Morocco and the Balkans in 1905, 1908, and 1911 all but led to international wars.What brought Europe closer to war was the Balkan crisis of 1912-1913, when Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece attacked and defeated Turkey.The whole of Europe is filled with war clouds.Thanks to Sir Edward Gray, the British Foreign Secretary, for rallying the powers, a timely reconciliation was made.

Anger and "preparation for war" But Germany and Austria-Hungary were very dissatisfied with this result.First of all, Turkey is a friendly country of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It lost a lot of territory due to its defeat and its national strength was greatly weakened.Second, the Kingdom of Serbia in Yugoslavia was a thorn in the side of Austria-Hungary, almost doubling its territory. In the summer of 1913, Austria-Hungary secretly proposed to its allies some measures to suppress Serbia.However, Germany and Italy refused.On the surface, peace was temporarily maintained, but it was maintained at a dangerous point.Nobody knows when the next crisis will strike.Meanwhile, all the great powers of the Continent were furiously expanding their armies.

[-]. How the First World War Started
The Assassination of the Grand Duke On June 1914, 6, a reckless Yugoslav youth fired several bullets that shocked the world.Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Hungary, was shot and killed with his wife as they drove through the streets of Sarajevo.Sarajevo is a town in the Bosnian province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.Because the assassinated Archduke was the nephew and most likely heir to the throne of Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph, the crime sparked a wave of outrage in Austria.The Austrians felt that behind this conspiracy was the support of the Serbian Kingdom of Yugoslavia, so Serbia must be punished.

In fact, although the assassin spoke Yugoslav and had Yugoslav national sentiments, he was not a Serbian citizen, but a Bosnian.Serbia has no incriminating evidence.An agent of the Austrian government reported that he could find no evidence that the Serbian government had organized the plot.However, he discovered that some Serbian officials had helped the conspirators acquire weapons.The conspiracy was planned in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia.The Serbian government sanctioned agitation against Austria.

Berchtold's ultimatum Count Berchtold, Austria-Hungary's foreign minister, felt that the atrocities in Sarajevo would give Austria reason to take a tough line against Serbia.Serbia is a thorn in Austria's side.If Serbia's incitement to the Yugoslavs in Austria is not stopped, perhaps Austria will collapse one day.Now is the time to act.Therefore, Berchtold issued an ultimatum to Serbia on July 1914, 7, accusing Serbia of failing to stop the plot against Austria.

The ultimatum called for Serbia to ban all anti-Austrian publications and associations, to fire anti-Austrian teachers in Serbian schools, to ban anti-Austrian teaching books, and to allow Austrians to help prevent anti-Austrian propaganda.Serbia must respond within 48 hours.

When the war broke out, Earl Berchtold deliberately made the ultimatum so harsh that Serbia could not agree.As he expected, Serbia rejected some of his demands, but offered to submit these points to arbitration.Both Russia and Britain urged him to give Serbia more time to consider, but he boldly followed through on his plan.Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 1914, 7.

Russia defends Serbia Russia kept a promise made during the 1908-1909 crisis, warning Austria-Hungary not to attack the small Slavic kingdom, and the Tsar ordered the mobilization of all his troops.

Germany's mobilization of Russian troops in support of Austria-Hungary threatened both Austria-Hungary and Germany.It would bring Russian troops closer to the German-Austro-Hungarian border before moving into action.Tolerating this, Germany's military leaders said, would amount to German suicide; it would put Russia in a strong position if war broke out.Germany immediately advocated that Russia cease mobilization.When Russia refused, Germany declared war on Russia.This was on August 1914, 8.

France's involvement France was an ally of Russia, and Germany asked the French government if it wanted to help Russia.France refused to declare neutrality, and Germany declared war on France on August 1914, 8.

Belgium's involvement Belgium thwarted the German plan, as the German generals had already prepared the attack plan for the war: send an army through Belgium and Luxembourg quickly, and give the French a chance before the slow-moving Russian army could make a move. deadly attack.

In a treaty, the powers, including Prussia, had pledged Belgium's neutrality.But Belgium stood in the way of Germany's invasion of France, and the treaty stood in the way of Germany.The German Chancellor considered it a wrongful breach of the treaty to drive through Belgium, but he had no guts to speak out against the German warlords.German troops attacked Belgium on August 8th.

British Involvement Up to this point, the UK has not yet determined how to act.The British government had secretly promised France that if the German navy attacked the French coast, British warships would stop it.Britain would have joined the war anyway, it could not allow its allies France and Russia to be defeated.But when German troops invaded Belgium, Britain's attitude was not a problem.Britain declared war on Germany that day.

Soon after, Japan followed Britain's lead.Montenegro also joined the war and sided with Serbia.

Italy's embarrassment Italy is the only remaining power in Europe that still maintains a neutral attitude.It was ostensibly an ally of Germany.Privately, it has a cooperation agreement with France.Italy said: Germany and Austria-Hungary first started the war, and it did not promise to help an aggressive war.

Cause and Responsibility Because the diplomacy that led to the war was conducted in secrecy, no one at first knew exactly which countries were really guilty.The Entente blamed Germany, and especially the Kaiser.The Germans and Austrians blamed Russia and Britain.People in all countries are willing to believe that their own government is innocent and the enemy country is guilty.Later, many truths were revealed and thousands of secret documents were published.The evidence shows that Austria deliberately and systematically declared war on Serbia with the permission of Germany.But it is not clear whether Germany intends to trigger a major war.On this point, opinions are divided.Some historians see Germany as guilty, while others blame mainly Russia and France, while others say both are to blame.

所有的真相都还不清楚，大概过去很多年也不会被彻底弄明白。但有一件事情是肯定的，德国与奥地利都没有，协约国也未在战争开始时公开所有真相。假如想要了解这场冲突的根本原因，就必须得回溯到1914年7月之前。总结起来，战争的原因可以归纳为：（1）国际关系处于一种不受约束的无政府状态；（2）各国之间的领土争端；（3）新重商主义；（4）“民族荣誉”的错误见解；（5）战争意味着“适者生存”的错误看法；（6）军国主义；（7）海军主义；（8）秘密外交与秘密联盟。

All these reasons are like dynamite, which will explode at the slightest touch.The assassination in Sarajevo and the ultimatum of the Austro-Hungarian Empire ignited the explosion of this explosive.

(End of this chapter)