A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century
Chapter 43 New Maps and New Laws
Chapter 43 New Maps and New Laws
[-]. The Treaty of Paris
The peace conference in Paris in January 1919 faced a major task.The world war was coming to an end; the map of the world was to be redrawn; treaties were to be drawn up in accordance with Wilson's Fourteen Points; a constitution for the League of Nations was to be drawn up.
32 countries This is a grand gathering of various personalities such as presidents, prime ministers, politicians, diplomats, geographers, bankers, and generals.Three of them are the most outstanding, that is, the French "Tiger" Clemenceau, the capable British Prime Minister Lloyd George, and the US President Woodrow Wilson.This "big three" controls all decisions.But there were 70 delegates in all, representing the 32 countries that had fought against Germany in the war.But Germany itself has no representatives, neither do some central European powers, and neither do Russia.The Allies intended to write the terms and then order the defeated nations to accept them.
条约 这70位正式代表由上百个秘书、地理学家、历史学家、金融家及一些各方面专家协助工作。尽管如此，条约的准备工作还是花费了好几个月的时间。最终，敌对各国被召集到了巴黎，准确地讲，是来到了巴黎附近的市镇，分别被命在各自与协约国拟定的条约上签字。德国的条约于1919年6月28日在凡尔赛宫著名的镜厅签订；奥地利的条约于9月10日在圣日耳曼签订；保加利亚的条约于11月27日在讷伊签订；匈牙利的条约于1920年6月4日在三角厅（在凡尔赛）签订；土耳其的条约于1920年8月10日在色佛尔签订。这五个条约与同时所签署的其他条约一起，可统称为1919年至1920年的巴黎和约，也称《凡尔赛和约》。
Winner's Gain Under the Treaty of Versailles, the victorious Western European powers received partial compensation for the horrific losses they had suffered, both human and financial.They wanted Germany to be reduced to the status of a second-class power; they wanted him to be unable to compete with them on an equal footing in industry and commerce, and they wanted her to be disarmed.They stripped Germany of all its colonies, confiscated all its navy and most of its merchant ships, forced the abandonment of mandatory military service and the cessation of arms production.They forced Germany to promise to pay them billions of dollars, in cash and in kind, such as coal.Such payments were called "indemnities" and compensated for damages caused by Germany.Before Germany paid off the reparations, the Allied forces would occupy the left bank of the Rhine.
The world hegemony that Germany had not achieved was gained by the Allied Powers, especially Britain and France.
Britain's Harvest In the Treaty of Versailles, Britain emerged in the world as the number one maritime and colonial power on Earth.In Asia, it established secret protective relations with the Arab countries Hijaz and Persia, and took Palestine and Mesopotamia from Turkey.In Africa, it consolidated its protectorate status over Egypt, carved up the German colonies of Togo and Cameroon together with France, helped the British Empire's South African Commonwealth obtain German Southwest Africa, and helped itself obtain most of German East Africa .In the Pacific, it divided the German islands south of the equator between New Zealand, Australia and itself.
France's harvest is in Europe. France not only gained control of Alsace-Lorraine, but also occupied the rich coal mines in the Saar River Basin.Outside of Europe, it acquired ownership of Syria and parts of Cameroon and Togo.It supported a huge standing army, and signed alliances with Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, and became the most important military power on the European continent.
Italy's Harvest Italy completes national unification.Austria ceded to it Trento, Trieste, Istria, and some islands in the Adriatic.A new treaty was concluded in 1924, and Italy acquired the city of Fiume.Confiscated Italian territory was finally recovered.Italy's African colonies in Libya and Somalia were expanded.
Japan's harvest Japan has increased its strength and prestige in the Far East, and obtained the concession rights of the German islands north of the equator in the Pacific Ocean and Germany in the Chinese economy.It ignored China's protests and occupied the commercial port of Jiaozhou Bay.Later, the commercial port of Jiaozhou Bay was returned to China in 1922.Japan profited not only from the failure of Germany but also from the weakness of China and the collapse of Russia.
Among the victorious powers, the United States is the only one that did not acquire territory from this world war, nor did it claim land in the Treaty of Versailles.
Great Hope Hundreds of millions of people felt during the terrible years of 1914-1918 that it would be the greatest gain if this war could end sooner rather than later.
As a result, many new maps have been drawn, and many new laws have been enacted.In different countries changes in government and social conditions have amounted to revolutions.Democracy and nationalism have made significant progress.
[-]. The Triumph of Nationalism in Europe
The outcome of the Treaty of Versailles led to the redrawing of the territories of most European states on an ethnic basis.Germany was stripped of the non-Germanic provinces, and Alsace-Lorraine, which Germany had captured in 1871, was returned to France.Northern Schleswig, which Germany had captured from Denmark in 1864, returned to Denmark.The Polish region of Prussia passed into the hands of the newly created Polish Republic.Danzig was inhabited by Germans, but it became a "free city" for which Poland had special commercial rights, since Poland had no other seaports.
The disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary disappeared, and its territory was divided among its nations.Austria and Hungary became two separate small states, the former inhabited by Germans and the latter inhabited by Hungarians (Magyars).The Czechoslovak provinces united to form the new independent Czechoslovak Republic.The province of Galicia passed to Poland.Transylvania and some nearby areas were ceded to Romania.Trento, Trieste, and the rest were given to Italy.The land of the Yugoslavs joined with Serbia to form the "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes", called Yugoslavia.
Partitioning of the Ottoman Turk Empire The "Treaty of Versailles" stipulated the terms of dividing the Ottoman Turk Empire according to national boundaries.Both Egypt and the small Arab state of Hijaz became "independent" kingdoms under British protection, largely under British control.Armenia achieved independence, but did not receive the help it needed to maintain it.Thus most of Armenia remains under actual Turkish occupation.Turkey's Thrace was given to Greece.
Palestine was established as a separate state, which was controlled by the United Kingdom.It was intended to create a "National House" for Jews who wanted to live in Palestine.Syria was appointed by France, who had built several railways and founded several Christian churches there.Mesopotamia was given to the British, who changed it to "Iraq", administered by an Arab king, under British control.
Under the leadership of Kemal, Turkey launched a nationalist revival movement and got rid of the fate of being further partitioned.
Loss of the Russian Empire Although Russia was not a party to the Treaty of Paris, it lost a considerable part of Europe.Its Polish provinces were united with those of Prussia and Austria to re-form the independent Polish state.Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania all gained independence from Russia.Bessarabia ceded to Romania.Ukraine (Little Russia) established a semi-independent government of its own in Kyiv, but soon merged with Russia.Likewise, several small national republics were formed in the Caucasus.
Nation-states in Eastern and Central Europe Because of the failure and disintegration of Russia, Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Germany, the territory of Eastern and Central Europe has undergone drastic changes.Germany did become a nation-state, as did Hungary, Turkey and, for a time, Russia.On the basis of abandoning the interests of Austria, Italy obtained the unity of the country.On the basis of abandoning the interests of Russia and Hungary, Romania also completed the unification of the country.Serbia and related areas established a unified Yugoslav state.Poland stood up again as a free and independent nation-state, recovering the territories it had lost to Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the 18th century.
National Autonomy The Paris Articles of 1919-1920 largely recognized the right to national autonomy that the Vienna Articles of 1815 did not.But many things violated the principle of national autonomy, such as separating Danzig from Germany, using a treaty to prevent the Germanic regions of Austria from joining Germany, bringing many Magyars into Romania, and many Germanic peoples into Czechoslovakia.
Referenda were held in some disputed areas to decide which country the local people wanted to join.Almost all new states were required to guarantee religious tolerance and equal citizenship to Jews and other cultural minorities.
[-]. The Republican Revolution in Central Europe
Another meaningful outcome of this world war was the creation of democratic republics throughout Central Europe.Germany lost its colonies and much of Europe, but gained political democracy.The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated, but each part gained political democracy for the most part.
The overthrow of the German autocracy The German autocracy was overthrown by military defeat.The dictatorship of the Hohenzollern dynasty in Prussia and Germany, in the final analysis, relied on the strength and loyalty of the army. In 1918, the German army showed its fatal weakness in the Second Battle of the Marne, unable to hold its positions in France and Belgium. Some groups in Germany who had never fully accepted the Bismarck plan strongly expressed their support for immediate peace talks. , and demanded democratic reforms.These groups are the Socialist Party, the Catholic Party and the Democratic Party.
The German Revolution of 1918-1919 Kaiser Wilhelm II appointed a Democrat, Prince Maximilian of Baden, as Chancellor of the Reich. The new Chancellor may have promised democratic reforms and began negotiating an armistice with the Entente.
But it's too late.The Entente refused to negotiate with an authoritarian government; democratic groups in Germany doubted whether the chancellor would have the power to implement liberal reforms as long as Kaiser Wilhelm II remained in power.At the same time, the German army was defeated again and again on the battlefield. At critical moments, several legions and the navy rebelled.As defeat and rebellion approached Wilhelm II, the end of the German autocracy was coming.
The flight of Kaiser Wilhelm II On November 1918, 11, two days before the armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers was signed, Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands.The Crown Prince of Prussia and the rest of the Hohenzollern family also fled.In a few days the kings of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony either abdicated or were deposed.
The Hohenzollern Empire of William I was established by Bismarck with iron and blood, and then perished in the iron and blood of World War I under the rule of William II.
Because of the flight of Wilhelm II, the German Republic won the almost bloodless revolution in Germany.Prince Maximilian of Baden handed over the post of Reich Chancellor to the leader of the Socialist Party, Friedrich Ebert.Ebert came from a working family.He authorized the signing of the armistice with the Entente and called for elections to the National Assembly.In this election, all German citizens over the age of 20 participated in the voting.This is a clear endorsement of democratic institutions.
At about the same time, provisional republican governments were established in Prussia, Bavaria, and all the remaining German states.
Germany's National Assembly The German National Assembly, held in Weimar in February 1919, was mainly controlled by a coalition of Socialists, Catholics and Democrats.It declared Germany a "republic," elected Ebert as its first president, ratified the Treaty of Versailles, and adopted a democratic constitution.
New German Constitution The new national constitution, which came into force in August 1919, declared that all Germans were equal before the law and abolished all privileges of birth, class or religion.Both the federal government and the state governments of the New Republic are based on the principle of popular sovereignty, in the form of a republic, and in the spirit of democracy.All German citizens, regardless of gender, have the right to vote in national and local elections, and votes are fair, direct and secret.
In the new republic, laws are made by the National Assembly representing the people and the Bundestag representing the states, and are enforced by the Cabinet, which is accountable to the National Assembly.The president of the new republic is elected by popular suffrage for a seven-year term.The 7 states that made up the republic all adopted democratic constitutions, and political reforms in Prussia were completed in November 18.
The new regime in Germany was severely tested in the first few years.On the one hand, he was criticized for signing an unpopular peace treaty with the Allies, and on the other hand, he had to shoulder the heavy responsibility for reconstruction.Plus, it has to defeat rival political groups.Junkers (the Prussian landlord class) and some capitalists tried to restore the monarchy and weaken the democratic system.In addition, the communists wanted to create a Soviet government.
Mostly in favor of the republic Between two extreme factions (monarchists and communists), Germany's new republican government follows a middle path.Supported by a majority of the German people, Democrats, Catholics and moderate Socialists, this moderate government fought the rebellion of the monarchists and the revolution of the Communists on the one hand and marched on the other. .In the name of the people, it continued in 1919 the task of unifying and liberalizing Germany that had been shelved by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849.Bismarck's gains from 1866 to 1871 were wiped out, and three parties he hated ended up in power.These three parties gave Germany a moderate liberal democratic government from 1919 to 1932.But Germany, like some countries, suffered from a severe economic crisis, and in 1931 and 1932 the economic crisis became more serious, and the government was blamed.Millions of voters turned to Adolf Hitler and his "Nazi" (National Socialist for short) party.Hitler had long been campaigning against the government, against the peace treaty, against disarmament, against the communists and the Jews.
Hitler took power Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933.He ruthlessly wiped out the entire opposition.He took into his own hands the powers of the National Assembly, the governments of the states, and the President.Hindenburg died in 1, leaving Hitler alone as the master of Germany, and even newspapers, radio, art and literature were under the control of the Nazis.
Revolution in the Austro-Hungarian Empire In the dual monarchy of the Habsburg dynasty, the ruled peoples were in constant turmoil. The final defeat of the Austro-Hungarian army in October 1918 was the signal for revolutions to break out across the Habsburg Empire.The Czechoslovaks and Poles established their own independent republics; the Yugoslavs and Romanians joined the democratic Kingdoms of Serbia and Romania; the Austrian Germans publicly declared a democratic Germanic Austrian republic; the Magyars formed created a Hungarian kingdom without a king.
Austria and the Czechoslovak Republic On November 1918, 11, a republic was established in the Germanic area of Austria. In 12, a democratic constitution as thorough as Germany was formulated.Also in 1920 was the Constitution of Czechoslovakia, which was modeled on the French constitution, but with the right to vote for both men and women.
Changes in Greece The Entente resented the actions of the Greeks in overthrowing Venizelos in 1920 and restoring their pro-German king Constantine to the throne.The pro-German king was deposed by the Allies in 1917. When Constantine was defeated by Turkey in 1922, the Entente did not help.The Greeks blamed him for the defeat, abolished the monarchy, and tried to establish a republic.But Greece welcomed Constantine's son George back home as king in 1935.
From 1917 to 1918, when Russia collapsed in the Republic of Poland, some Polish soldiers returned from Russia, and some returned from Prussia and Austria.After Pisudski returned to Poland, the occupying Germans imprisoned him, but most of the Polish soldiers did join the Allies.At the end of the war, in November 1918, Poland became a free and independent republic and was once again united, with General Pisudski as president.
The Baltic Republics Around the same time or later, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became democratic republics.These four countries were breakaway from the former Russian Empire.
Spread of Democracy So we see that the end of the world war was marked by a great political revolution throughout Eastern and Central Europe.The autocracy was destroyed in Russia, Germany, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.The domineering Romanov, Hohenzollern and Habsburg royal families all lost their dominance.Most of the countries in Central Europe have established republics.Divine monarchy seems to have finally died out in the world, with the possible exception of Japan and some unimportant countries.
[-]. Democracy in Western Europe
After the Great War in Britain, business and labor issues put the British democracy to the test.Although Great Britain won the war, it was burdened with a huge national debt ten times higher than in the past.Businesses were in decline, many factories closed, taxes were unbelievably heavy, and 100 to 200 million workers were unemployed for a long time.
At the same time, there have been some surprising reforms in politics. The Liberal politician David Lloyd George, who had been prime minister since 1916, was brought down by the Conservatives in 1922.The Liberal Party, so strong before the war, was weak and divided after the war.Now the two sides in the competition are the Conservative Party and the Labor Party.The Labor Party came to power for the first time in January 1924, with Ramsay MacDonald serving as Prime Minister for only 1 months. Five years later, he was in power again, this time from 10 until 5.He made a lot of efforts for peace and disarmament, but because of his increasingly conservative economic policies, he lost the support of the Labor Party.Britain is recovering from the financial crisis, but it faces yet another international crisis.Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin returned to the cabinet in 1929.King George V died in 1935.His successor, Edward VIII, reigned less than a year before being succeeded by George VI.
The pace of Britain's move towards democratic politics has gradually accelerated, because two major electoral reforms in 1918 and 1928 basically completed democratic politics.The People's Representative Act issued in 1918 stipulates that in the election process of members of the House of Commons, all men who have reached the age of 21 and women who have reached the age of 30, who have a fixed residence in a certain place for six months within a year or is a place to work, and veterans over the age of 18 are entitled to vote.It also stipulates that the number of groups represented by each member of the House of Commons should be the same.
The 1928 Act extended the right to vote to all women over the age of 21, on the same terms as men.This added more than five million women to the electorate, winning the suffrage movement. Women were allowed to be elected to the House of Commons after 500, but not to the House of Lords. In 1918 women became cabinet members for the first time.
"The Irish Free State" (The Irish Free State), which has the right to fully govern its internal affairs, was proclaimed in 1922 and admitted to the League of Nations in 1923.The Orangemen of Ulster formed themselves an alternative "Government of Northern Ireland" under the Home Rule Act of 1920.Under the 1922 Constitution, the Irish Free State is a democratic republic, effectively a republic, enjoying the same liberties as Canada and some of the British Dominions.Not only that, but it also spearheaded efforts for the true independence of the Dominions.It was renamed "Ireland" (Eire) in 1937.
In France after the French World War, like most European countries, the most obvious is the financial and economic problems.The government remains at a standstill as described in Chapter 40.There are many small parties that conflict with each other, and it is difficult for each party to gain dominance. In 1919 Parliament passed the eight-hour day, along with various other labor-friendly laws.Church-state relations improved after the war.
In Spain as early as 1931, King Alfonso XIII of Spain was expelled, a new republic was formed, a new democratic constitution was enacted, and church and state were separated.
V. Russian Revolution and Communism
After the First World War, when the autocratic system was replaced by a representative democratic system in Central Europe, it was replaced by the Bolsheviks in Eastern Europe (Russia).
The Tsar’s Policies In Chapter 41, the three policies pursued by the Russian Tsar are described: (1) to expand the empire by war and conquest; (2) to “Russify” the subject peoples; Despotism in governance and politics.
The Russian Revolution of 1905-1906 had little success.The only long-term outcome was the Duma, a sham parliament elected by certain classes and controlled by the tsar.
Radical political parties Despite this, before the outbreak of the World War in 1914, various radical political parties also emerged inside and outside the Duma, representing varying degrees of resistance to the autocratic system.The Bolsheviks were the most radical of these parties.They were communists who wanted to seize the earliest opportunity to turn Russia into a socialist republic.
World War All the people of Russia, except the Bolsheviks, initially loyally supported the Tsar in fighting against Germany and Austria.Slavic Russians feared the Germans.Liberal Russians had hoped for a democratic government in the Entente.Russia's subject peoples such as Poles, Finns, Jews, and Lithuanians believed that the success of the Entente might lead to the recognition of their national rights and ideals.
If Tsar Nicholas II could satisfy these wishes of his people, he would have a good chance of gaining prestige and glory.But he was narrow-minded and stubborn.He did not grant a single right to the subject peoples.He doesn't heed the advice of liberal leaders.He firmly opposed the expansion of the Duma's electoral rights and the cabinet being responsible to the Duma.
The March Revolution of 1917. Had the Tsar's forces triumphed over Germany, he might have been able to maintain his position, but defeats on the battlefield exposed the government's rot.The severe winter and the starvation of millions of poor people hastened the crisis.A storm of discontent developed into a revolution in March 3.The Tsar was deposed and a provisional republic government headed by Prince Georgy Lvov was established.He was a liberal landowner and a constitutional Democrat.
Lvov and Kerensky Prince Lvov prepares to establish a democratic government and redouble his efforts to win the war.But most Russians need peace.They also needed radical social and economic reforms, which Lvov did not want to give them.
Lvov enlisted the help of some radical leaders, notably Alexander Kerensky, to prop up his faltering government. In August 1917, Kerensky attempted to establish some kind of autocracy.But it was too late, and the storm returned.
1917年的11月革命 布尔什维主义人士于1917年11月7日在彼得格勒爆发了武装起义，颠覆了克伦斯基政府，掌控了权力。三月革命摧毁了俄国的专制体制。十一月革命让布尔什维主义人士获得了政权，自此之后他们一直统治着俄国直至1991年。
The main leaders of the Bolshevism of the dictatorship of the proletariat were Nikolai Lenin and Lev Trotsky.They had four major goals: (1) to negotiate peace with Germany; (2) to put the working class in power; (3) to implement radical economic policies and social reforms; (4) to prevent foreign powers from interfering in Russia.
In early 1918 they did make peace with Germany.At the same time they gave up Finland, Poland, Ukraine and the rest of the old empire.But then, the collapse of Germany allowed the Bolshevism to reclaim Ukraine.
The first general elections in Russia by Lenin and Trotsky showed that Bolshevisms made up only a small minority of the Russian people.So they gave up democracy to maintain their regime, and they dissolved the elected parliament on the grounds that it was "reactionary", that is, it hindered progress.All local Soviets that did not support Bolshevism were dissolved.
The constitution of the Bolshevism The Bolshevism worked through the Soviets.The National Congress of Soviets adopted a constitution for Russia in July 1918.The constitution upholds freedom of belief, speech, press, and assembly, and provides a clear form of organization for the dictatorship of the working class.The country claimed to be a "Federal Republic of Soviets of Workers, Peasants and Soldiers' Deputies".Citizens of eighteen years of age and above who earned their living by labor, and revolutionary soldiers and sailors were entitled to vote, but monks, nobles, and most of the middle class were not given the right to vote.A National Congress of Soviets was established, but the power to legislate and elect cabinet members was given to the Congress's Central Executive Committee.Lenin and Trotsky controlled the Central Executive Committee.So the so-called dictatorship of the working class shrunk down to a dictatorship of just a few people.
Economic and Social Changes Economic and social reforms were carried out in a radically socialist direction.All extra perks are pretty much abolished.Labor is compulsory for all citizens.Rich people give houses to poor people.Private ownership of land was abolished without any reservation, and without any compensation, farmers were only allowed to use the land they cultivated, and the ownership of all land belonged to the state.This is true of mines, forests, railways, etc.All previous public debts owed by the Russian government were cancelled.Confiscate all private banks.The Russian Orthodox Church was deprived of state funding.Private schools were banned and a system of state-run schools was planned.
The red flag of Red Flag Socialism replaced the old Russian flag; the capital was moved from Petrograd to Moscow, and agents of the Bolshevist were sent abroad to convince the world of Bolshevik socialism.Bolshevisms are often called communists.They were also known as the "Reds" because of the colors of their flag.
Success Against Foreign Intervention While the Bolshevisms were bent on getting the world to adopt their ways of thinking and doing, they were also determined to prevent foreign interference in Russia.In this matter, they have been very successful.During the first three years, various attempts were made by the Entente and other countries to eliminate the Bolshevism's hold on Russia, but by 3 the Bolshevism had basically established their authority in Russia.
In 1922, the European powers invited Russia to an international conference in Genoa.The purpose of this meeting is to discuss various related economic issues.Russia accepted the invitation, but the Bolshevism government refused to accept the terms proposed by the Entente regarding the payment of debts owed by the old Russian government and the disposal of foreign property in Russia.On the other hand, the Entente did not want to recognize the Bolshevist government or provide it with new loans.However, they did so in 1924, and the Russian people continued to experiment with communism in their own way.
The New Economic Policy and the Five-Year Plan The death of Lenin in 1924 was deeply mourned by the people of the whole country.In his honor, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad.In Russia, extreme communism had been replaced by a more moderate program, the New Economic Policy. In 1928, under Joseph Stalin, the first Five-Year Plan calling for rapid growth in agriculture and industry began.A large number of machines were introduced.Russia also hired foreign engineers to help create new industries, opening power plants, steelworks, and factories of all kinds.From 1928 to 1932, Russia's industrial output more than doubled, and in 1933 a second five-year plan was adopted.
Education One of the greatest hindrances to rapid industrial development is the lack of education of the people.Before the war, three-quarters of the population was illiterate.Communists expect education to be universal.They used public schools as a tool and a means to teach communist theory, as well as train skilled workers.
Anti-Christian Bolshevists waged a merciless war against the Orthodox Church, confiscating its lands and houses, closing missionary schools, teaching atheism in public schools, and banning Christian teachings.Despite these measures, many Christians, including Roman Catholics and Protestants of various denominations, still insisted on their faith, and some were allowed to worship in churches leased from the government.
Foreign Policy At first, the Bolshevisms openly agitated for world revolution, and they expected to plant red flags all over the world.But Russia needs foreign machinery and capital, and this requires a more friendly policy.In order to be able to do business with some countries, Chicherin, who served as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs from 1918 to 1929, made a promise that Russia had no intention of subverting other governments.However, many Russians continued to carry out communist activities abroad.
[-]. Fascist Dictatorship in Italy
As we have seen in the tumultuous course of history, no one can predict what the outcome of war or revolution will be.In Russia, after World War I, Bolshevism came to power.In Italy, Fascism rose to power and, like Bolshevism, there was great interest everywhere.
Italy's progress in democracy From 1871 when Italy was liberated and unified to 1914 when the First World War broke out, the Italian government became a democratic government and passed many laws to promote the social welfare and economic happiness of the people.
National Patriotism Italian democracy has not diminished Italian patriotism.National patriotism is expressed in many ways, especially the desire to regain Trento, and Trieste, which lasted for a long time. In 1915, Italy severed the Triple Alliance and sided with France, Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria-Hungary.Because of this war it gained Trento, Trieste, and a few other places.
A disappointing success but Italy did not get the huge spoils it had hoped for.Eager patriots complained that the fruits of their country's victories were robbed by other countries.Economic reasons also fueled dissatisfaction.Italy reeled under the weight of its war debt.The rise in the cost of living has sparked public discontent.Veterans who fought in the world wars came back from the front and had a hard time finding work.Peasants clamored for land to plant, and in some places they had in fact seized the fields of the rich.Factory workers often express their dissatisfaction by going on strike.
For all the confusion and misery, the government is rightly to blame.The Italian government at this time was rather weak, mainly because no party had a majority in Parliament.
The Rise of the Fascists Under these circumstances, disquieting patriots of all kinds, war veterans, peasants and factory workers, joined the fascist legions in droves.Fascists are followers of Benito Mussolini.He was a news editor, a war veteran, and a radical socialist before.The Fascist Party is interpreted in Italian as a "combat union" and is mainly composed of young people who have fought in the world wars.The fascists used black shirts as uniforms, adopted the salute posture and symbols of the ancient Roman legions, and tried their best to restore the spirit of advocating force in the Roman era.They proclaimed themselves the saviors of Italy.At first, no one paid them much attention.But by October 1922, the fascist party had grown and attracted the attention of the people.At this time they began to "attack Rome", claiming to seize power.
When Mussolini was in power, the king of Italy humbly appointed the leader of the Fascist party, Mussolini, as prime minister.Parliament was quite frightened and voted to give him dictatorial powers.He was a "leader" (il duce) who ruled Italy with an iron rod.His charismatic personality deftly disguises himself to the public as a muscular athlete, a fearless hero, an incomparable patriot and a superman who can be prime minister and seven at the same time. The work of cabinet members.He reminded many people of Caesar and Napoleon.
Mussolini's Program Mussolini tried his best to prevent any criticism of his actions, and newspapers had to sing his praises or be shut down.Any university professor who advocates against him will be fired.The leaders of anti-fascism fled abroad.The opposition parties were completely smashed.All freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly cease to exist.The head plans to replace individual liberty with state discipline.All citizens must obey the will of the state, and the will of the state refers to Mussolini.
Economic reform Mussolini's first task was to eliminate economic poverty.He used spending cuts to balance the state budget and stabilize the currency.Draining the swampy areas would allow Italy to increase food production.Use Italy's abundant hydropower to generate electricity, and then use electricity to replace expensive imported coal.
Labor and capital Mussolini first used his supreme power to reduce the struggle between labor and capital.The socialist and communist trade unions were destroyed and replaced by the official trade unions established by the Labor Relations Act of 1926, under strict government control to sweep away revolutionary agitators.Employers are also grouped in official trade unions.Issues such as wages, working hours and working conditions are settled with appropriate contracts.Strikes and closing of factories are prohibited, and labor disputes are submitted to exclusive courts for judgment.
The initiatives listed above are only some preliminary steps towards realizing the fascist ideal of a nation-state based on economic organization rather than political parties.
Representation in Parliament In 1928-1929, the Fascists in Italy experimented with economic blocs in place of political parties.First, 13 large economic blocs nominated 800 candidates for the new National Assembly.The National Council of Fascists selected 400 of these individuals.Voters were then allowed to mark "agree" or "disagree" on the ballot.Of course, almost all of the 850 million-plus ballots were marked "yes."It is astonishing that 13.6 people cast "disagree" votes, which can be identified by color, which is a challenge to the national council.
The Rome Problem One of the most difficult problems Mussolini grappled with was the Rome problem. When the Italian army captured Rome in 1870, the pope refused to promise compensation for his lost territory, causing hostility between the church and the state.Mussolini managed to strike an agreement to stem the dispute.According to an agreement signed on February 1929, 2, Italy recognized the Pope as the head of a small independent state with sovereignty over Vatican City in Rome; as a condition of the transaction, the Pope gave up sovereignty claims in some places .
Although the Vatican City only includes some buildings of the Vatican, St. Paul's Church and the adjacent gardens, a total of about 100 acres of land and only 1000 residents, it is enough to give the Pope an independent status without being subject to Italian rule.According to the Treaty of the Holy See signed that day, a friendly agreement was reached on the relationship between the church and the state, such as education, marriage law, and the right to appoint bishops.
Foreign Policy In foreign relations, Mussolini was more concerned with acquiring territories than cultivating international relations.He said that if Italy must restore the glory of ancient Rome, it must expand.He negotiated with Britain and France to secure land in Africa and the disputed Adriatic port of Fiume through a 1924 treaty with Yugoslavia.In effect, Albania became a vassal state of Italy.
[-]. Other dictatorships
The most important and interesting dictatorship in Europe after the World Wars was Fascist Italy, but there were others, which we shall briefly describe.
In Poland As a result of World War I, the Polish nation-state was freed and reunited.It initially had an armed conflict with its neighbors, but that was subsided in 1921, when they worked together to create a constitution.This constitution is similar to the French constitution, but it is not effectively implemented.General Piłsudski declared in 1923 that Poland needed a stronger government, and he attacked Warsaw and seized power.After he came to power, he became a dictator, and achieved dictatorship through the republic at that time. After his death in 1935, the republican form of dictatorship continued in a revised constitution.Lithuania is also a dictatorship.
At the end of the world war in Hungary, the republic established in Hungary was overthrown by a communist in 1919.He was quickly replaced by a conservative dictator, Admiral Horthy.During the latter's rule, Hungary established a parliament and a cabinet, but the parliament was not democratic and the cabinet was conservative.
The various dictators in southern Europe, Greece, which declared itself a republic in 1924, vacillated between dictatorship and democracy.After 11 years of indecision, Greece decided in 1935 to recall the king from exile.For a few years Bulgaria was ruled by a peasant prime minister who severely suppressed the opposition and all dictators, but he was eventually brought down and shot.Albania also had a dictator who stole the king's title.In Yugoslavia, a king gained the power of a dictator.For a while, King Alexander wielded absolute power.He was assassinated in 1934, and a child as young as 11 took the throne.
In Spain in 1923, the constitutional government was set aside by General Primo de Rivera and ruled under a military dictatorship for more than six years, favored by officers and businessmen and apparently by the king, but was To the protests of universities, labor leaders and liberal politicians.When Rivera resigned in January 6, another general succeeded him as prime minister. In 1930, a revolution broke out in Spain and a republic was established.
[-]. The Superficial Victory of Democracy
President Wilson and many others hoped that a world war would make the world a safe place for democracies to thrive.Democracy advanced by the end of the war, but was threatened by dictators.But, all in all, democracy is the general trend.
Democracy in politics We must know what democracy is and what it can do, otherwise democracy cannot be used to solve our problems.A famous British writer once said: "Democracy in the true sense is the rule of the people by letting all the people express their will as sovereigns with their votes."
Political systems that allow all citizens to express their will with their votes are new and more or less experimental.A century ago, no country allowed "all the people" to vote.In the United States, until 1865 or after, the right to vote was granted only to whites, and in some states in the United States, certain classes of adult citizens still do not have the right to vote.It was not until 1918 that the United Kingdom implemented full adult men's suffrage.The idea that every man should vote is a recent novelty and not yet fully accepted, but the tendency to do so is clear.The idea that women should vote is more recent.Some countries are now going a step further and mandating mandatory voting.
Direct democracy in a large country with a representative government is impossible, and political democracy must be realized through elected representatives.Then an important issue in democratic politics is how much power can be exercised by representatives elected by the people.Until 1860, most countries were ruled by monarchs, some with absolute power and some with limited power.The United States is the only major country that has abolished the monarchy and handed over all power to voters and representatives.
A republic is gaining popularity A republic is an indirect democracy in which laws are made and enforced by representatives elected by the people without any form of kingship. After the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870, many countries other than the United States and France became republics.After World War I, many monarchies in Europe became republics.The most recent republic was the historic kingdom of Spain.
The government of a republic, like a limited monarchy, is a constitutional government.In other words, all laws are enacted and implemented in accordance with a fundamental law or constitution.The Constitution specifically expresses the will of the people as a sovereign, and also includes specific guarantees for freedom and democracy.All republics have a parliament or parliament and executive officers or ministers.
Democracy and Publicity In the internal affairs of the country, democratic governments are often quite open about what is being discussed or done, but they are usually kept secret about matters of diplomacy.Whether diplomatic relations should also be fully public is an open question.
Growth of the Republic The French Third Republic established a constitution in 1875; Portugal in 1910; China two years later; and Russia in 1917.By the end of the world war, Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Turkey, and Greece were all republics.Thus republics prevailed in most of Europe, although republics in Russia and other countries were short-lived.In Asia, China and Turkey are republics, and in Africa there is the black Republic of Liberia.There are 21 republics in the new world.
But some republics are not fully democratic. China, Turkey and some Latin American republics are in fact controlled by military dictators.In Europe, too, military dictatorships emerged.Some countries still maintain their emperor, king or queen, but in most countries, the power of the monarch is taken away and the government looks like a republic government.
(End of this chapter)
[-]. The Treaty of Paris
The peace conference in Paris in January 1919 faced a major task.The world war was coming to an end; the map of the world was to be redrawn; treaties were to be drawn up in accordance with Wilson's Fourteen Points; a constitution for the League of Nations was to be drawn up.
32 countries This is a grand gathering of various personalities such as presidents, prime ministers, politicians, diplomats, geographers, bankers, and generals.Three of them are the most outstanding, that is, the French "Tiger" Clemenceau, the capable British Prime Minister Lloyd George, and the US President Woodrow Wilson.This "big three" controls all decisions.But there were 70 delegates in all, representing the 32 countries that had fought against Germany in the war.But Germany itself has no representatives, neither do some central European powers, and neither do Russia.The Allies intended to write the terms and then order the defeated nations to accept them.
条约 这70位正式代表由上百个秘书、地理学家、历史学家、金融家及一些各方面专家协助工作。尽管如此，条约的准备工作还是花费了好几个月的时间。最终，敌对各国被召集到了巴黎，准确地讲，是来到了巴黎附近的市镇，分别被命在各自与协约国拟定的条约上签字。德国的条约于1919年6月28日在凡尔赛宫著名的镜厅签订；奥地利的条约于9月10日在圣日耳曼签订；保加利亚的条约于11月27日在讷伊签订；匈牙利的条约于1920年6月4日在三角厅（在凡尔赛）签订；土耳其的条约于1920年8月10日在色佛尔签订。这五个条约与同时所签署的其他条约一起，可统称为1919年至1920年的巴黎和约，也称《凡尔赛和约》。
Winner's Gain Under the Treaty of Versailles, the victorious Western European powers received partial compensation for the horrific losses they had suffered, both human and financial.They wanted Germany to be reduced to the status of a second-class power; they wanted him to be unable to compete with them on an equal footing in industry and commerce, and they wanted her to be disarmed.They stripped Germany of all its colonies, confiscated all its navy and most of its merchant ships, forced the abandonment of mandatory military service and the cessation of arms production.They forced Germany to promise to pay them billions of dollars, in cash and in kind, such as coal.Such payments were called "indemnities" and compensated for damages caused by Germany.Before Germany paid off the reparations, the Allied forces would occupy the left bank of the Rhine.
The world hegemony that Germany had not achieved was gained by the Allied Powers, especially Britain and France.
Britain's Harvest In the Treaty of Versailles, Britain emerged in the world as the number one maritime and colonial power on Earth.In Asia, it established secret protective relations with the Arab countries Hijaz and Persia, and took Palestine and Mesopotamia from Turkey.In Africa, it consolidated its protectorate status over Egypt, carved up the German colonies of Togo and Cameroon together with France, helped the British Empire's South African Commonwealth obtain German Southwest Africa, and helped itself obtain most of German East Africa .In the Pacific, it divided the German islands south of the equator between New Zealand, Australia and itself.
France's harvest is in Europe. France not only gained control of Alsace-Lorraine, but also occupied the rich coal mines in the Saar River Basin.Outside of Europe, it acquired ownership of Syria and parts of Cameroon and Togo.It supported a huge standing army, and signed alliances with Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, and became the most important military power on the European continent.
Italy's Harvest Italy completes national unification.Austria ceded to it Trento, Trieste, Istria, and some islands in the Adriatic.A new treaty was concluded in 1924, and Italy acquired the city of Fiume.Confiscated Italian territory was finally recovered.Italy's African colonies in Libya and Somalia were expanded.
Japan's harvest Japan has increased its strength and prestige in the Far East, and obtained the concession rights of the German islands north of the equator in the Pacific Ocean and Germany in the Chinese economy.It ignored China's protests and occupied the commercial port of Jiaozhou Bay.Later, the commercial port of Jiaozhou Bay was returned to China in 1922.Japan profited not only from the failure of Germany but also from the weakness of China and the collapse of Russia.
Among the victorious powers, the United States is the only one that did not acquire territory from this world war, nor did it claim land in the Treaty of Versailles.
Great Hope Hundreds of millions of people felt during the terrible years of 1914-1918 that it would be the greatest gain if this war could end sooner rather than later.
As a result, many new maps have been drawn, and many new laws have been enacted.In different countries changes in government and social conditions have amounted to revolutions.Democracy and nationalism have made significant progress.
[-]. The Triumph of Nationalism in Europe
The outcome of the Treaty of Versailles led to the redrawing of the territories of most European states on an ethnic basis.Germany was stripped of the non-Germanic provinces, and Alsace-Lorraine, which Germany had captured in 1871, was returned to France.Northern Schleswig, which Germany had captured from Denmark in 1864, returned to Denmark.The Polish region of Prussia passed into the hands of the newly created Polish Republic.Danzig was inhabited by Germans, but it became a "free city" for which Poland had special commercial rights, since Poland had no other seaports.
The disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary disappeared, and its territory was divided among its nations.Austria and Hungary became two separate small states, the former inhabited by Germans and the latter inhabited by Hungarians (Magyars).The Czechoslovak provinces united to form the new independent Czechoslovak Republic.The province of Galicia passed to Poland.Transylvania and some nearby areas were ceded to Romania.Trento, Trieste, and the rest were given to Italy.The land of the Yugoslavs joined with Serbia to form the "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes", called Yugoslavia.
Partitioning of the Ottoman Turk Empire The "Treaty of Versailles" stipulated the terms of dividing the Ottoman Turk Empire according to national boundaries.Both Egypt and the small Arab state of Hijaz became "independent" kingdoms under British protection, largely under British control.Armenia achieved independence, but did not receive the help it needed to maintain it.Thus most of Armenia remains under actual Turkish occupation.Turkey's Thrace was given to Greece.
Palestine was established as a separate state, which was controlled by the United Kingdom.It was intended to create a "National House" for Jews who wanted to live in Palestine.Syria was appointed by France, who had built several railways and founded several Christian churches there.Mesopotamia was given to the British, who changed it to "Iraq", administered by an Arab king, under British control.
Under the leadership of Kemal, Turkey launched a nationalist revival movement and got rid of the fate of being further partitioned.
Loss of the Russian Empire Although Russia was not a party to the Treaty of Paris, it lost a considerable part of Europe.Its Polish provinces were united with those of Prussia and Austria to re-form the independent Polish state.Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania all gained independence from Russia.Bessarabia ceded to Romania.Ukraine (Little Russia) established a semi-independent government of its own in Kyiv, but soon merged with Russia.Likewise, several small national republics were formed in the Caucasus.
Nation-states in Eastern and Central Europe Because of the failure and disintegration of Russia, Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Germany, the territory of Eastern and Central Europe has undergone drastic changes.Germany did become a nation-state, as did Hungary, Turkey and, for a time, Russia.On the basis of abandoning the interests of Austria, Italy obtained the unity of the country.On the basis of abandoning the interests of Russia and Hungary, Romania also completed the unification of the country.Serbia and related areas established a unified Yugoslav state.Poland stood up again as a free and independent nation-state, recovering the territories it had lost to Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the 18th century.
National Autonomy The Paris Articles of 1919-1920 largely recognized the right to national autonomy that the Vienna Articles of 1815 did not.But many things violated the principle of national autonomy, such as separating Danzig from Germany, using a treaty to prevent the Germanic regions of Austria from joining Germany, bringing many Magyars into Romania, and many Germanic peoples into Czechoslovakia.
Referenda were held in some disputed areas to decide which country the local people wanted to join.Almost all new states were required to guarantee religious tolerance and equal citizenship to Jews and other cultural minorities.
[-]. The Republican Revolution in Central Europe
Another meaningful outcome of this world war was the creation of democratic republics throughout Central Europe.Germany lost its colonies and much of Europe, but gained political democracy.The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated, but each part gained political democracy for the most part.
The overthrow of the German autocracy The German autocracy was overthrown by military defeat.The dictatorship of the Hohenzollern dynasty in Prussia and Germany, in the final analysis, relied on the strength and loyalty of the army. In 1918, the German army showed its fatal weakness in the Second Battle of the Marne, unable to hold its positions in France and Belgium. Some groups in Germany who had never fully accepted the Bismarck plan strongly expressed their support for immediate peace talks. , and demanded democratic reforms.These groups are the Socialist Party, the Catholic Party and the Democratic Party.
The German Revolution of 1918-1919 Kaiser Wilhelm II appointed a Democrat, Prince Maximilian of Baden, as Chancellor of the Reich. The new Chancellor may have promised democratic reforms and began negotiating an armistice with the Entente.
But it's too late.The Entente refused to negotiate with an authoritarian government; democratic groups in Germany doubted whether the chancellor would have the power to implement liberal reforms as long as Kaiser Wilhelm II remained in power.At the same time, the German army was defeated again and again on the battlefield. At critical moments, several legions and the navy rebelled.As defeat and rebellion approached Wilhelm II, the end of the German autocracy was coming.
The flight of Kaiser Wilhelm II On November 1918, 11, two days before the armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers was signed, Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands.The Crown Prince of Prussia and the rest of the Hohenzollern family also fled.In a few days the kings of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony either abdicated or were deposed.
The Hohenzollern Empire of William I was established by Bismarck with iron and blood, and then perished in the iron and blood of World War I under the rule of William II.
Because of the flight of Wilhelm II, the German Republic won the almost bloodless revolution in Germany.Prince Maximilian of Baden handed over the post of Reich Chancellor to the leader of the Socialist Party, Friedrich Ebert.Ebert came from a working family.He authorized the signing of the armistice with the Entente and called for elections to the National Assembly.In this election, all German citizens over the age of 20 participated in the voting.This is a clear endorsement of democratic institutions.
At about the same time, provisional republican governments were established in Prussia, Bavaria, and all the remaining German states.
Germany's National Assembly The German National Assembly, held in Weimar in February 1919, was mainly controlled by a coalition of Socialists, Catholics and Democrats.It declared Germany a "republic," elected Ebert as its first president, ratified the Treaty of Versailles, and adopted a democratic constitution.
New German Constitution The new national constitution, which came into force in August 1919, declared that all Germans were equal before the law and abolished all privileges of birth, class or religion.Both the federal government and the state governments of the New Republic are based on the principle of popular sovereignty, in the form of a republic, and in the spirit of democracy.All German citizens, regardless of gender, have the right to vote in national and local elections, and votes are fair, direct and secret.
In the new republic, laws are made by the National Assembly representing the people and the Bundestag representing the states, and are enforced by the Cabinet, which is accountable to the National Assembly.The president of the new republic is elected by popular suffrage for a seven-year term.The 7 states that made up the republic all adopted democratic constitutions, and political reforms in Prussia were completed in November 18.
The new regime in Germany was severely tested in the first few years.On the one hand, he was criticized for signing an unpopular peace treaty with the Allies, and on the other hand, he had to shoulder the heavy responsibility for reconstruction.Plus, it has to defeat rival political groups.Junkers (the Prussian landlord class) and some capitalists tried to restore the monarchy and weaken the democratic system.In addition, the communists wanted to create a Soviet government.
Mostly in favor of the republic Between two extreme factions (monarchists and communists), Germany's new republican government follows a middle path.Supported by a majority of the German people, Democrats, Catholics and moderate Socialists, this moderate government fought the rebellion of the monarchists and the revolution of the Communists on the one hand and marched on the other. .In the name of the people, it continued in 1919 the task of unifying and liberalizing Germany that had been shelved by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849.Bismarck's gains from 1866 to 1871 were wiped out, and three parties he hated ended up in power.These three parties gave Germany a moderate liberal democratic government from 1919 to 1932.But Germany, like some countries, suffered from a severe economic crisis, and in 1931 and 1932 the economic crisis became more serious, and the government was blamed.Millions of voters turned to Adolf Hitler and his "Nazi" (National Socialist for short) party.Hitler had long been campaigning against the government, against the peace treaty, against disarmament, against the communists and the Jews.
Hitler took power Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933.He ruthlessly wiped out the entire opposition.He took into his own hands the powers of the National Assembly, the governments of the states, and the President.Hindenburg died in 1, leaving Hitler alone as the master of Germany, and even newspapers, radio, art and literature were under the control of the Nazis.
Revolution in the Austro-Hungarian Empire In the dual monarchy of the Habsburg dynasty, the ruled peoples were in constant turmoil. The final defeat of the Austro-Hungarian army in October 1918 was the signal for revolutions to break out across the Habsburg Empire.The Czechoslovaks and Poles established their own independent republics; the Yugoslavs and Romanians joined the democratic Kingdoms of Serbia and Romania; the Austrian Germans publicly declared a democratic Germanic Austrian republic; the Magyars formed created a Hungarian kingdom without a king.
Austria and the Czechoslovak Republic On November 1918, 11, a republic was established in the Germanic area of Austria. In 12, a democratic constitution as thorough as Germany was formulated.Also in 1920 was the Constitution of Czechoslovakia, which was modeled on the French constitution, but with the right to vote for both men and women.
Changes in Greece The Entente resented the actions of the Greeks in overthrowing Venizelos in 1920 and restoring their pro-German king Constantine to the throne.The pro-German king was deposed by the Allies in 1917. When Constantine was defeated by Turkey in 1922, the Entente did not help.The Greeks blamed him for the defeat, abolished the monarchy, and tried to establish a republic.But Greece welcomed Constantine's son George back home as king in 1935.
From 1917 to 1918, when Russia collapsed in the Republic of Poland, some Polish soldiers returned from Russia, and some returned from Prussia and Austria.After Pisudski returned to Poland, the occupying Germans imprisoned him, but most of the Polish soldiers did join the Allies.At the end of the war, in November 1918, Poland became a free and independent republic and was once again united, with General Pisudski as president.
The Baltic Republics Around the same time or later, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became democratic republics.These four countries were breakaway from the former Russian Empire.
Spread of Democracy So we see that the end of the world war was marked by a great political revolution throughout Eastern and Central Europe.The autocracy was destroyed in Russia, Germany, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.The domineering Romanov, Hohenzollern and Habsburg royal families all lost their dominance.Most of the countries in Central Europe have established republics.Divine monarchy seems to have finally died out in the world, with the possible exception of Japan and some unimportant countries.
[-]. Democracy in Western Europe
After the Great War in Britain, business and labor issues put the British democracy to the test.Although Great Britain won the war, it was burdened with a huge national debt ten times higher than in the past.Businesses were in decline, many factories closed, taxes were unbelievably heavy, and 100 to 200 million workers were unemployed for a long time.
At the same time, there have been some surprising reforms in politics. The Liberal politician David Lloyd George, who had been prime minister since 1916, was brought down by the Conservatives in 1922.The Liberal Party, so strong before the war, was weak and divided after the war.Now the two sides in the competition are the Conservative Party and the Labor Party.The Labor Party came to power for the first time in January 1924, with Ramsay MacDonald serving as Prime Minister for only 1 months. Five years later, he was in power again, this time from 10 until 5.He made a lot of efforts for peace and disarmament, but because of his increasingly conservative economic policies, he lost the support of the Labor Party.Britain is recovering from the financial crisis, but it faces yet another international crisis.Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin returned to the cabinet in 1929.King George V died in 1935.His successor, Edward VIII, reigned less than a year before being succeeded by George VI.
The pace of Britain's move towards democratic politics has gradually accelerated, because two major electoral reforms in 1918 and 1928 basically completed democratic politics.The People's Representative Act issued in 1918 stipulates that in the election process of members of the House of Commons, all men who have reached the age of 21 and women who have reached the age of 30, who have a fixed residence in a certain place for six months within a year or is a place to work, and veterans over the age of 18 are entitled to vote.It also stipulates that the number of groups represented by each member of the House of Commons should be the same.
The 1928 Act extended the right to vote to all women over the age of 21, on the same terms as men.This added more than five million women to the electorate, winning the suffrage movement. Women were allowed to be elected to the House of Commons after 500, but not to the House of Lords. In 1918 women became cabinet members for the first time.
"The Irish Free State" (The Irish Free State), which has the right to fully govern its internal affairs, was proclaimed in 1922 and admitted to the League of Nations in 1923.The Orangemen of Ulster formed themselves an alternative "Government of Northern Ireland" under the Home Rule Act of 1920.Under the 1922 Constitution, the Irish Free State is a democratic republic, effectively a republic, enjoying the same liberties as Canada and some of the British Dominions.Not only that, but it also spearheaded efforts for the true independence of the Dominions.It was renamed "Ireland" (Eire) in 1937.
In France after the French World War, like most European countries, the most obvious is the financial and economic problems.The government remains at a standstill as described in Chapter 40.There are many small parties that conflict with each other, and it is difficult for each party to gain dominance. In 1919 Parliament passed the eight-hour day, along with various other labor-friendly laws.Church-state relations improved after the war.
In Spain as early as 1931, King Alfonso XIII of Spain was expelled, a new republic was formed, a new democratic constitution was enacted, and church and state were separated.
V. Russian Revolution and Communism
After the First World War, when the autocratic system was replaced by a representative democratic system in Central Europe, it was replaced by the Bolsheviks in Eastern Europe (Russia).
The Tsar’s Policies In Chapter 41, the three policies pursued by the Russian Tsar are described: (1) to expand the empire by war and conquest; (2) to “Russify” the subject peoples; Despotism in governance and politics.
The Russian Revolution of 1905-1906 had little success.The only long-term outcome was the Duma, a sham parliament elected by certain classes and controlled by the tsar.
Radical political parties Despite this, before the outbreak of the World War in 1914, various radical political parties also emerged inside and outside the Duma, representing varying degrees of resistance to the autocratic system.The Bolsheviks were the most radical of these parties.They were communists who wanted to seize the earliest opportunity to turn Russia into a socialist republic.
World War All the people of Russia, except the Bolsheviks, initially loyally supported the Tsar in fighting against Germany and Austria.Slavic Russians feared the Germans.Liberal Russians had hoped for a democratic government in the Entente.Russia's subject peoples such as Poles, Finns, Jews, and Lithuanians believed that the success of the Entente might lead to the recognition of their national rights and ideals.
If Tsar Nicholas II could satisfy these wishes of his people, he would have a good chance of gaining prestige and glory.But he was narrow-minded and stubborn.He did not grant a single right to the subject peoples.He doesn't heed the advice of liberal leaders.He firmly opposed the expansion of the Duma's electoral rights and the cabinet being responsible to the Duma.
The March Revolution of 1917. Had the Tsar's forces triumphed over Germany, he might have been able to maintain his position, but defeats on the battlefield exposed the government's rot.The severe winter and the starvation of millions of poor people hastened the crisis.A storm of discontent developed into a revolution in March 3.The Tsar was deposed and a provisional republic government headed by Prince Georgy Lvov was established.He was a liberal landowner and a constitutional Democrat.
Lvov and Kerensky Prince Lvov prepares to establish a democratic government and redouble his efforts to win the war.But most Russians need peace.They also needed radical social and economic reforms, which Lvov did not want to give them.
Lvov enlisted the help of some radical leaders, notably Alexander Kerensky, to prop up his faltering government. In August 1917, Kerensky attempted to establish some kind of autocracy.But it was too late, and the storm returned.
1917年的11月革命 布尔什维主义人士于1917年11月7日在彼得格勒爆发了武装起义，颠覆了克伦斯基政府，掌控了权力。三月革命摧毁了俄国的专制体制。十一月革命让布尔什维主义人士获得了政权，自此之后他们一直统治着俄国直至1991年。
The main leaders of the Bolshevism of the dictatorship of the proletariat were Nikolai Lenin and Lev Trotsky.They had four major goals: (1) to negotiate peace with Germany; (2) to put the working class in power; (3) to implement radical economic policies and social reforms; (4) to prevent foreign powers from interfering in Russia.
In early 1918 they did make peace with Germany.At the same time they gave up Finland, Poland, Ukraine and the rest of the old empire.But then, the collapse of Germany allowed the Bolshevism to reclaim Ukraine.
The first general elections in Russia by Lenin and Trotsky showed that Bolshevisms made up only a small minority of the Russian people.So they gave up democracy to maintain their regime, and they dissolved the elected parliament on the grounds that it was "reactionary", that is, it hindered progress.All local Soviets that did not support Bolshevism were dissolved.
The constitution of the Bolshevism The Bolshevism worked through the Soviets.The National Congress of Soviets adopted a constitution for Russia in July 1918.The constitution upholds freedom of belief, speech, press, and assembly, and provides a clear form of organization for the dictatorship of the working class.The country claimed to be a "Federal Republic of Soviets of Workers, Peasants and Soldiers' Deputies".Citizens of eighteen years of age and above who earned their living by labor, and revolutionary soldiers and sailors were entitled to vote, but monks, nobles, and most of the middle class were not given the right to vote.A National Congress of Soviets was established, but the power to legislate and elect cabinet members was given to the Congress's Central Executive Committee.Lenin and Trotsky controlled the Central Executive Committee.So the so-called dictatorship of the working class shrunk down to a dictatorship of just a few people.
Economic and Social Changes Economic and social reforms were carried out in a radically socialist direction.All extra perks are pretty much abolished.Labor is compulsory for all citizens.Rich people give houses to poor people.Private ownership of land was abolished without any reservation, and without any compensation, farmers were only allowed to use the land they cultivated, and the ownership of all land belonged to the state.This is true of mines, forests, railways, etc.All previous public debts owed by the Russian government were cancelled.Confiscate all private banks.The Russian Orthodox Church was deprived of state funding.Private schools were banned and a system of state-run schools was planned.
The red flag of Red Flag Socialism replaced the old Russian flag; the capital was moved from Petrograd to Moscow, and agents of the Bolshevist were sent abroad to convince the world of Bolshevik socialism.Bolshevisms are often called communists.They were also known as the "Reds" because of the colors of their flag.
Success Against Foreign Intervention While the Bolshevisms were bent on getting the world to adopt their ways of thinking and doing, they were also determined to prevent foreign interference in Russia.In this matter, they have been very successful.During the first three years, various attempts were made by the Entente and other countries to eliminate the Bolshevism's hold on Russia, but by 3 the Bolshevism had basically established their authority in Russia.
In 1922, the European powers invited Russia to an international conference in Genoa.The purpose of this meeting is to discuss various related economic issues.Russia accepted the invitation, but the Bolshevism government refused to accept the terms proposed by the Entente regarding the payment of debts owed by the old Russian government and the disposal of foreign property in Russia.On the other hand, the Entente did not want to recognize the Bolshevist government or provide it with new loans.However, they did so in 1924, and the Russian people continued to experiment with communism in their own way.
The New Economic Policy and the Five-Year Plan The death of Lenin in 1924 was deeply mourned by the people of the whole country.In his honor, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad.In Russia, extreme communism had been replaced by a more moderate program, the New Economic Policy. In 1928, under Joseph Stalin, the first Five-Year Plan calling for rapid growth in agriculture and industry began.A large number of machines were introduced.Russia also hired foreign engineers to help create new industries, opening power plants, steelworks, and factories of all kinds.From 1928 to 1932, Russia's industrial output more than doubled, and in 1933 a second five-year plan was adopted.
Education One of the greatest hindrances to rapid industrial development is the lack of education of the people.Before the war, three-quarters of the population was illiterate.Communists expect education to be universal.They used public schools as a tool and a means to teach communist theory, as well as train skilled workers.
Anti-Christian Bolshevists waged a merciless war against the Orthodox Church, confiscating its lands and houses, closing missionary schools, teaching atheism in public schools, and banning Christian teachings.Despite these measures, many Christians, including Roman Catholics and Protestants of various denominations, still insisted on their faith, and some were allowed to worship in churches leased from the government.
Foreign Policy At first, the Bolshevisms openly agitated for world revolution, and they expected to plant red flags all over the world.But Russia needs foreign machinery and capital, and this requires a more friendly policy.In order to be able to do business with some countries, Chicherin, who served as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs from 1918 to 1929, made a promise that Russia had no intention of subverting other governments.However, many Russians continued to carry out communist activities abroad.
[-]. Fascist Dictatorship in Italy
As we have seen in the tumultuous course of history, no one can predict what the outcome of war or revolution will be.In Russia, after World War I, Bolshevism came to power.In Italy, Fascism rose to power and, like Bolshevism, there was great interest everywhere.
Italy's progress in democracy From 1871 when Italy was liberated and unified to 1914 when the First World War broke out, the Italian government became a democratic government and passed many laws to promote the social welfare and economic happiness of the people.
National Patriotism Italian democracy has not diminished Italian patriotism.National patriotism is expressed in many ways, especially the desire to regain Trento, and Trieste, which lasted for a long time. In 1915, Italy severed the Triple Alliance and sided with France, Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria-Hungary.Because of this war it gained Trento, Trieste, and a few other places.
A disappointing success but Italy did not get the huge spoils it had hoped for.Eager patriots complained that the fruits of their country's victories were robbed by other countries.Economic reasons also fueled dissatisfaction.Italy reeled under the weight of its war debt.The rise in the cost of living has sparked public discontent.Veterans who fought in the world wars came back from the front and had a hard time finding work.Peasants clamored for land to plant, and in some places they had in fact seized the fields of the rich.Factory workers often express their dissatisfaction by going on strike.
For all the confusion and misery, the government is rightly to blame.The Italian government at this time was rather weak, mainly because no party had a majority in Parliament.
The Rise of the Fascists Under these circumstances, disquieting patriots of all kinds, war veterans, peasants and factory workers, joined the fascist legions in droves.Fascists are followers of Benito Mussolini.He was a news editor, a war veteran, and a radical socialist before.The Fascist Party is interpreted in Italian as a "combat union" and is mainly composed of young people who have fought in the world wars.The fascists used black shirts as uniforms, adopted the salute posture and symbols of the ancient Roman legions, and tried their best to restore the spirit of advocating force in the Roman era.They proclaimed themselves the saviors of Italy.At first, no one paid them much attention.But by October 1922, the fascist party had grown and attracted the attention of the people.At this time they began to "attack Rome", claiming to seize power.
When Mussolini was in power, the king of Italy humbly appointed the leader of the Fascist party, Mussolini, as prime minister.Parliament was quite frightened and voted to give him dictatorial powers.He was a "leader" (il duce) who ruled Italy with an iron rod.His charismatic personality deftly disguises himself to the public as a muscular athlete, a fearless hero, an incomparable patriot and a superman who can be prime minister and seven at the same time. The work of cabinet members.He reminded many people of Caesar and Napoleon.
Mussolini's Program Mussolini tried his best to prevent any criticism of his actions, and newspapers had to sing his praises or be shut down.Any university professor who advocates against him will be fired.The leaders of anti-fascism fled abroad.The opposition parties were completely smashed.All freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly cease to exist.The head plans to replace individual liberty with state discipline.All citizens must obey the will of the state, and the will of the state refers to Mussolini.
Economic reform Mussolini's first task was to eliminate economic poverty.He used spending cuts to balance the state budget and stabilize the currency.Draining the swampy areas would allow Italy to increase food production.Use Italy's abundant hydropower to generate electricity, and then use electricity to replace expensive imported coal.
Labor and capital Mussolini first used his supreme power to reduce the struggle between labor and capital.The socialist and communist trade unions were destroyed and replaced by the official trade unions established by the Labor Relations Act of 1926, under strict government control to sweep away revolutionary agitators.Employers are also grouped in official trade unions.Issues such as wages, working hours and working conditions are settled with appropriate contracts.Strikes and closing of factories are prohibited, and labor disputes are submitted to exclusive courts for judgment.
The initiatives listed above are only some preliminary steps towards realizing the fascist ideal of a nation-state based on economic organization rather than political parties.
Representation in Parliament In 1928-1929, the Fascists in Italy experimented with economic blocs in place of political parties.First, 13 large economic blocs nominated 800 candidates for the new National Assembly.The National Council of Fascists selected 400 of these individuals.Voters were then allowed to mark "agree" or "disagree" on the ballot.Of course, almost all of the 850 million-plus ballots were marked "yes."It is astonishing that 13.6 people cast "disagree" votes, which can be identified by color, which is a challenge to the national council.
The Rome Problem One of the most difficult problems Mussolini grappled with was the Rome problem. When the Italian army captured Rome in 1870, the pope refused to promise compensation for his lost territory, causing hostility between the church and the state.Mussolini managed to strike an agreement to stem the dispute.According to an agreement signed on February 1929, 2, Italy recognized the Pope as the head of a small independent state with sovereignty over Vatican City in Rome; as a condition of the transaction, the Pope gave up sovereignty claims in some places .
Although the Vatican City only includes some buildings of the Vatican, St. Paul's Church and the adjacent gardens, a total of about 100 acres of land and only 1000 residents, it is enough to give the Pope an independent status without being subject to Italian rule.According to the Treaty of the Holy See signed that day, a friendly agreement was reached on the relationship between the church and the state, such as education, marriage law, and the right to appoint bishops.
Foreign Policy In foreign relations, Mussolini was more concerned with acquiring territories than cultivating international relations.He said that if Italy must restore the glory of ancient Rome, it must expand.He negotiated with Britain and France to secure land in Africa and the disputed Adriatic port of Fiume through a 1924 treaty with Yugoslavia.In effect, Albania became a vassal state of Italy.
[-]. Other dictatorships
The most important and interesting dictatorship in Europe after the World Wars was Fascist Italy, but there were others, which we shall briefly describe.
In Poland As a result of World War I, the Polish nation-state was freed and reunited.It initially had an armed conflict with its neighbors, but that was subsided in 1921, when they worked together to create a constitution.This constitution is similar to the French constitution, but it is not effectively implemented.General Piłsudski declared in 1923 that Poland needed a stronger government, and he attacked Warsaw and seized power.After he came to power, he became a dictator, and achieved dictatorship through the republic at that time. After his death in 1935, the republican form of dictatorship continued in a revised constitution.Lithuania is also a dictatorship.
At the end of the world war in Hungary, the republic established in Hungary was overthrown by a communist in 1919.He was quickly replaced by a conservative dictator, Admiral Horthy.During the latter's rule, Hungary established a parliament and a cabinet, but the parliament was not democratic and the cabinet was conservative.
The various dictators in southern Europe, Greece, which declared itself a republic in 1924, vacillated between dictatorship and democracy.After 11 years of indecision, Greece decided in 1935 to recall the king from exile.For a few years Bulgaria was ruled by a peasant prime minister who severely suppressed the opposition and all dictators, but he was eventually brought down and shot.Albania also had a dictator who stole the king's title.In Yugoslavia, a king gained the power of a dictator.For a while, King Alexander wielded absolute power.He was assassinated in 1934, and a child as young as 11 took the throne.
In Spain in 1923, the constitutional government was set aside by General Primo de Rivera and ruled under a military dictatorship for more than six years, favored by officers and businessmen and apparently by the king, but was To the protests of universities, labor leaders and liberal politicians.When Rivera resigned in January 6, another general succeeded him as prime minister. In 1930, a revolution broke out in Spain and a republic was established.
[-]. The Superficial Victory of Democracy
President Wilson and many others hoped that a world war would make the world a safe place for democracies to thrive.Democracy advanced by the end of the war, but was threatened by dictators.But, all in all, democracy is the general trend.
Democracy in politics We must know what democracy is and what it can do, otherwise democracy cannot be used to solve our problems.A famous British writer once said: "Democracy in the true sense is the rule of the people by letting all the people express their will as sovereigns with their votes."
Political systems that allow all citizens to express their will with their votes are new and more or less experimental.A century ago, no country allowed "all the people" to vote.In the United States, until 1865 or after, the right to vote was granted only to whites, and in some states in the United States, certain classes of adult citizens still do not have the right to vote.It was not until 1918 that the United Kingdom implemented full adult men's suffrage.The idea that every man should vote is a recent novelty and not yet fully accepted, but the tendency to do so is clear.The idea that women should vote is more recent.Some countries are now going a step further and mandating mandatory voting.
Direct democracy in a large country with a representative government is impossible, and political democracy must be realized through elected representatives.Then an important issue in democratic politics is how much power can be exercised by representatives elected by the people.Until 1860, most countries were ruled by monarchs, some with absolute power and some with limited power.The United States is the only major country that has abolished the monarchy and handed over all power to voters and representatives.
A republic is gaining popularity A republic is an indirect democracy in which laws are made and enforced by representatives elected by the people without any form of kingship. After the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870, many countries other than the United States and France became republics.After World War I, many monarchies in Europe became republics.The most recent republic was the historic kingdom of Spain.
The government of a republic, like a limited monarchy, is a constitutional government.In other words, all laws are enacted and implemented in accordance with a fundamental law or constitution.The Constitution specifically expresses the will of the people as a sovereign, and also includes specific guarantees for freedom and democracy.All republics have a parliament or parliament and executive officers or ministers.
Democracy and Publicity In the internal affairs of the country, democratic governments are often quite open about what is being discussed or done, but they are usually kept secret about matters of diplomacy.Whether diplomatic relations should also be fully public is an open question.
Growth of the Republic The French Third Republic established a constitution in 1875; Portugal in 1910; China two years later; and Russia in 1917.By the end of the world war, Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Turkey, and Greece were all republics.Thus republics prevailed in most of Europe, although republics in Russia and other countries were short-lived.In Asia, China and Turkey are republics, and in Africa there is the black Republic of Liberia.There are 21 republics in the new world.
But some republics are not fully democratic. China, Turkey and some Latin American republics are in fact controlled by military dictators.In Europe, too, military dictatorships emerged.Some countries still maintain their emperor, king or queen, but in most countries, the power of the monarch is taken away and the government looks like a republic government.
(End of this chapter)
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