A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century
Chapter 8 Greek Expansion and Alexandria
Chapter 8 Greek Expansion and Alexandria
[-]. The Fall of the Walls of the Greek World
The Greek world We should all remember the Greek world. This world is huge and includes many places.Not only does it have Athens and the Aegean Sea region, it also includes hundreds of other Greek cities.The Greek world is widely distributed. It has its territory in the Greek peninsula, the Black Sea coast, Sicily, southern Italy, and even its colonies can be seen on the Mediterranean coast of France and Spain.Each of these Greek city-states is worth studying for its government, its architecture, its sculpture, its development of literature and thought.And we specifically choose to study Athens because Athens is relatively outstanding in all aspects, and it is also better than other city-states.
Collapsing Walls In 404 BC, the walls of Athens were demolished due to defeat.However, what many people did not expect is that with the demolition of the walls of Athens, the Greek world is slowly undergoing great changes.These changes were not anticipated, and they were not intentional.There are many walls like Greece in other Greek cities.These walls used to be the protection of the city-state, and it is precisely because of these walls that people love the city-state more, and it is easier to give affection to the city-state.It can be said that these walls not only play a protective role, but also have a certain degree of restrictive effect.Because before these walls were demolished, Greek culture only developed in a small space, and there were no good channels to spread it.Presumably it was not until most of the city walls were demolished that Greek culture could spread to the wider world.The stone walls of Athens may be too hard to be torn down, but the spiritual walls in people's hearts are slowly falling down because they are too fragile.Due to the independence of the city-state, the city wall encloses the citizens in the city, which makes the patriotism of the people develop inside the city-state. This also causes people to focus on the local acropolis, but they are indifferent to the outside world.The physical walls are also spiritual walls. When the walls of Athens were demolished, the spiritual walls of the Athenians also collapsed and disintegrated.
From another point of view, the nature of Greek civilization has changed. It is no longer just a city-state civilization, but continues to expand outward, becoming a national civilization and a world civilization.Especially for the 3rd century BC - 4th century BC, this change is more obvious.Its course of change can be seen in political life as well as in other ways of life.In addition, the demolition of the walls of Athens was influenced by external influences, and similarly, the expansion of spiritual forces and the development of civilization came from outside.
The move toward united Greek political expansion had already begun in the 4th century BC.For example: Several city-states in Greece combined to form a larger alliance group.Before the Greek and Persian Wars, Sparta had reached a consensus with some other city-states under its military leadership and formed the Peloponnesian League.After Athens defeated the Persians, the cities of the Aegean Sea were also unified under the management of Athens.Many politicians in Greece are trying to make the joint cooperation closer. Even if they do not form a real alliance, they hope to dissolve the confrontation between the two alliance camps and let them work together with other Greek city-states to formulate a plan to maintain relative peace. way.
In terms of the integration of religious beliefs, languages, and customs, the Greek culture has an obvious unity, and this unity has long existed, which is conducive to the realization of this peace.At that time, almost all the Greeks worshiped Zeus very much, as well as some other important gods. Many Greek cities and even remote areas sent their representatives to participate in various religious activities. Fei held the Pito Games, the purpose is to commemorate and worship Apollo.
Barriers to Unity Although similarities in these respects could serve as bonds of unity among city-states, the Greek city-states were still keenly aware of their differences.They were therefore not united, and between 431 BC and 404 BC the disastrous Peloponnesian War took place on the Greek peninsula.
In ancient Greece, division has always been the political weakness of the city-states, and they have suffered a lot in this regard.There were two main reasons for the long-term division and constant conflict in the Greek world: one was that Athens and Sparta controlled many city-states that appeared to be united, but some of them were weak The city-states are too oppressed, and they are more or less dissatisfied with their current situation, hoping to get rid of the big city-states and regain their autonomy; another reason is that many city-states hope to become the leaders of Greece, rather than being ruled by other city-states. control.The big city-states struggle with each other and contain each other, and they all have their own followers.Sparta took its neighbors for itself during the Peloponnesian War; Athens claimed the Aegean Sea; Syracuse took most of Sicily.However, none of the three city-states could complete the unification of the entire Greek world.
The defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War made Sparta the leader of East Greece and Syracuse the leader of West Greece.However, for Sparta at that time, whether it was dealing with weaker city-states such as Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, or dealing with the powerful Persian state, it was not an easy task, and it seemed a little powerless. Syracuse is also in the same situation. It has many local enemies, including the Carthaginians, who are opposing its control.
Internal rivalry Syracuse might have done well in the west without the Carthaginians making trouble.In 480 BC, the Carthaginians were defeated by Syracuse and Accragas in Greece and Mexico. The defeat of the Carthaginians made Sicily free and liberated for 70 years.By 409 BC, however, Sicily was once again under threat from Africa.This year, the coast of Sicily was suddenly attacked by the Carthaginian fleet. Two Greek cities on the island were destroyed by it. Tens of thousands of Greek women were looted, and tons of spoils were shipped back to Carthage.Three years later, the Carthaginians destroyed another Greek city in Sicily in the same barbarous manner.At this point, the Carthaginians completely controlled the entire western part of Sicily.
Dionysius the dictator In 405 BC, Dionysius was just a young soldier at that time. Taking advantage of the unstable situation at that time, he became the leader of Syracuse on his own.He kept fighting for power for himself, and besides that, he set two goals: one was to rescue Sicily from the rule of Carthage; the other was to hope that Syracuse could unify Western Greece.He led a powerful army against Carthage, finally liberated all but the western tip of Sicily, and ruled the whole of Sicily.While fighting Carthage, he extended his sphere of influence in Italy, occupying the entire toe of the Italian boot.Furthermore, the Adriatic coast became his colony, the maritime trade was also controlled by him, and the two islands of Corsica and Elba also became his sphere of influence.
The dictatorship of Dionysius made Syracuse the economic and political center of Western Greece.However, many of his practices were unpopular and in some ways too cruel and ruthless, such as imposing high taxes, lacking respect for temples and religions, and recruiting foreigners in the army.Moreover, he is accustomed to all kinds of "bad deeds", which arouses dissatisfaction among the people.Dionysius died in 367 BC.Soon after his death, the once mighty imperial rule collapsed, and Western Greece returned to a state of division.
The failure of Sparta and the joint operation in East Greece were also unsuccessful.In the thirty years following its victory in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta was the most powerful of all city-states, but also the most impudent and overbearing.Sparta has always wanted to establish a military dictatorship in Athens and other city-states to replace the original local liberal democracy.The differences in the ruling system caused the city-states to hate Sparta, especially Sparta's leadership style.And Sparta actually united with the Persian Empire, which made it even more unpopular and completely lost the trust of other city-states.It may even be said unceremoniously that Spartan leadership has become a kind of child's play mockery.
The rebellion could not be avoided.In 371 BC, Epaminondas, the military genius of Thebes, led Thebes to fight through Leuktra, completely destroying the Spartan front and army.In the following years, Thebes naturally became the leader of the Eastern Greek city-states.Unfortunately, the good times didn't last long, and history repeated itself again: constant rebellion, constant war, eternal division.
A foreign conqueror, a city-state in the Greek peninsula, exhausted its manpower and material resources because of the long war.The contradiction and balance between city-states was once a huge engine of Greek civilization, which greatly stimulated the progress of Greek civilization.The city-states not only competed with each other in politics, but also competed with each other in sports and literature and art. The competition made them achieve outstanding results.But from the 5th century BC to the 4th century BC, this kind of competition and stimulation became a sharp double-edged sword.The conflict between them has turned into a protracted war.Until 338 BC, Philip of Macedon invaded the Greek peninsula.The war between the Greek city-states finally stopped, but this state of peace did not last long.
Political and Social Changes Before telling the history of how Macedonia conquered the Greek peninsula, it is necessary to talk about Macedonia's political, economic, artistic and ideological development and changes.In the 4th century BC, Macedonia underwent earth-shaking changes, and soon after, the independent Greek world came to an end.
For example, according to the traditional concept, the army of a city-state should recruit local citizens as soldiers, but this concept gradually disappeared.Because many soldiers of the Greek city-states are no longer city-state citizens, many of them are mercenaries and have no citizenship themselves.There have also been changes in politics. An important manifestation is that the aristocratic class no longer occupies the main positions in the government. Leaders can also be elected from among the common people, which can better reflect the wishes of the common people.Economic shifts loom large, helping to shed light on where political developments are headed.Many poor people are dissatisfied with the miserable status quo, and their resistance is growing day by day.The rich enjoy leisure time and luxuries, while the poor have to endure rising prices and living expenses.As for the reasons for rising prices, one is that the purchasing power of money has decreased, while the circulation of money has increased.Another reason was that Athens and many other city-states preferred imports, and their growing dependence on imported food caused inflation.In addition, big merchants always want to monopolize the whole market and try to raise the price of goods.
The increasing intensification of slavery was also an important aspect of change.The slave population in Athens was very large. In the 4th century BC, the slaves in Athens accounted for more than half of the total population.
Greek civilization, including art, architecture, speech, science and philosophy, as well as politics and economics, etc., these cultural changes reflect the changes in Greek life at that time.
4. Greek culture in the [-]th century BC
The formality and seriousness of the past are gone, replaced by elegance and freedom.The work objects of sculptors and architects are no longer just temples, they spend more energy and painstaking efforts on houses, tombs and theaters.Although the number of god statues they made decreased, they made the god statues more personal, and more statues of living people were born in their hands.The great sculptors, including Praxiteles, preferred to carve such lifelike representatives of sexual beauty as Hermes and Aphrodite, rather than the rigid and armed Athena or the solemn Olympian Zeus. .Some critics believe that "Aphrodite on Milos", commonly known as "Venus with the Broken Arm", is from this period.
It is said that the painters of this period surpassed all the painters of the past.But because of their paintings, apart from the carvings on the vessels, very few have been preserved.So we have no way to comment on this.
Architects of this period built huge mansions and decorated them with great detail.Early Greek temples were often rare and simple in design—a single-layer rectangular shape structure, with several rows of round or square pillars erected on two or four sides of the temple.The above-mentioned Parthenon is undoubtedly the most graceful example of a Greek temple.Before the 4th century BC, the style of the columns was mostly "Dorian". Although the "Dorian" style is relatively simple, it can give people a sense of solemnity. There will be symmetrical outlines where necessary, and the design that tapers to the top is very elegant and elegant.In the 4th century BC, the "Ionian style" developed in Asia Minor became more popular.The Ionic columns are relatively slender and slender, not sharp, and the load-bearing foundation stone and column crowns are all carved with flower-like patterns.There was a third style, which was very popular in the following centuries, and was called the "Corinthian style", which had tall columns and crowns carved with ornate buttercup leaves.
Transitional literature Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes once gave Athens the title of "House of Theater", but there were two changes in the script: (1) The religion of the drama The ingredients were reduced, and even dared to satirize the politicians and the bad habits prevailing at that time; (2) Other cities also built theaters.At the end of the 4th century BC, theaters were built in the larger Greek cities in the highly civilized Mediterranean region.Greek actors not only performed classical works of the last century, but also performed many new plays.In short, the theater became one of the characteristics of Greek urban life.
Oratory The highest development period of Greek oratory was the 4th century BC - the eve of the occupation of various Greek city-states by invaders.The advent of government and the creation of juries created a need for the art of public speaking.Aspiring young men in Athens, Syracuse, and other Greek cities devoted years and years to training for legal and political careers.They studied politics, history, and literature in addition to their studies in the art of eloquence.The greatest orator in Greece, and probably the greatest orator in history - Demosthenes (384-322 BC).He was born in a wealthy family, and after his guardians conspired to take away his property, Demosthenes grew up as a member of the disadvantaged class.Although he did not receive conventional training like the average Greek child, he worked hard and determined to become an influential orator.There were many stories about him afterward—how he practiced speaking with a pebble in his mouth to make up for his speech deficits, how he increased the intensity of his voice by shouting into roaring waves.In the end, he defeated the insidious guardian and finally won the case.So he became a professional writer who wrote defenses for the parties' defenders before the jury.He managed to become one of the leading politicians in Athens.Using straightforward logical thinking like a beam of light and heart-piercing words like a sharp arrow, he wanted to awaken the spirit of serving the public in the Athenians that had been buried deep in their hearts.He publicly strongly condemned the indifference and corruption that had gradually infiltrated into political life, and pointed out that the surrounding barbarians attempted to invade and conquer Greece, especially Macedonia in the north of Greece.He spurred Athens to become the leader of the entire Greek army and led the Greeks to bravely resist the Macedonian king Philip.
The "Running of Philip" is by far the best-known of Demosthenes' speeches, though perhaps not his finest.He lashed out at Philip, and at the same time called on the Greeks to unite and bravely resist the invader Philip.However, all the city-states belonging to Greece eventually surrendered to Philip's forceful conquest, and Demosthenes finally had to leave his hometown and go into exile, and could not return to his hometown.
Science In the 4th century BC, Greece made the most astonishing breakthroughs in science, philosophy, and ethics.This breakthrough was due to the fact that the Greeks learned more about ancient civilizations in Egyptian and Western Asian cultures.There is a trend in new thinking, which is to try to explain the world with simple, less complicated elements or principles.A more popular theory is: all things are composed of four elements, in simple terms, they are heat, cold, wet and dry respectively represented by fire, air, water and earth, and intimacy and hostility are the factors that contribute to these four elements. Reasons for elements to come together or separate.
In the three fields of astronomy, mathematics and medicine, Greece has also made substantial breakthroughs.The timing of solar and lunar eclipses can be detected in advance, and the causes of the phenomenon have also been confirmed one by one.After Thales, Pythagoras and others discovered most of the theorems in elementary geometry that are still taught today.In medicine, Hippocrates and others laid a solid foundation.Hippocrates (460 BC-377 BC) is still known as the "Father of Medicine".Although he was troubled by the lack of chemical knowledge at that time, and that it was wrong to dissect a corpse at that time, he still found the original prescriptions and medicines, just like all the rules and regulations needed in hygiene, diet, medicine and surgery. principle, and asserted that "in every disease there is a natural cause".
Philosophy and philosophers 4th century BC Teachers of oratory, law, morality, and religion, often called Sophists, a title derived from the Greek word for wisdom (Sophia) .They see themselves as intelligent teachers.It is true, sometimes, they have not gained much glory in essence, and we are now accustomed to treat "sophistry" with a harsh eye.However, many of them deserve the honor of being valued, and they are always traveling in different places and speaking or expounding their academic theories in public.They are not only the first professional teachers in the history of the world to use the skill of eloquence, but also the first professional teachers in the world to teach political and social sciences.The three great teachers in this period are Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. We generally call them philosophers, not sophists.Socrates (469 BC-399 BC) was a person who was at the forefront of the times. He was Plato's teacher, he taught Plato knowledge, and Plato was Aristotle's teacher.Socrates was not originally a professional teacher who worked for remuneration. In fact, he was a person who boldly pursued the truth.Day after day, he ran around in the market of Athens city to give lectures and impart knowledge, treating rich and poor city residents equally, and he would teach them the same answers to the questions of these two types of people.But to the surprise of future generations, he was misunderstood and slandered by the people at that time. In the end, the government sentenced him to death, and his life was ended hastily.
Plato (427-347 BC) is arguably the greatest of Socrates' disciples.He is also a very famous teacher and writer.He put forward an interesting theory: whether it is what we see with our eyes or what we feel with our bodies, they are just invisible shadows independent of the things themselves; and he believes that God created the universe so that the universe can exist.One of Plato's most important achievements was the founding of a school called the Academy on the outskirts of Athens.
Plato's greatest and most proud disciple - Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC), because he was born in Stakila, Macedonia, people often call him "Stakila".He created a different school called Lyceum.His students were always called the "Peripatetics" because Aristotle usually paced back and forth while teaching them.He has written many books on all sciences.His greatness is not only because of his rich knowledge, but also because of his precise method and logical thinking style in his investigation and research.He wrote an unsurpassed book on logical thinking and how to think right.Nearly 2000 years after his death, he has been revered as "the only philosopher", and there are still many scholars who read his works with admiration for him.
[-]. Alexander's Empire
Macedonia and Philip Finally, the Greek city-states were conquered by the Kingdom of Macedonia.Macedonia was rarely mentioned until the middle of the 4th century BC, and was also known as Macedonia.The Greeks considered the Macedonian kingdom not only "barbaric", but also rough and backward.But the Macedonians learned a considerable amount from the Greeks, which played a large role in the Macedonian occupation of Greece.Later, with the prevalence of Greek culture in the Kingdom of Macedonia, Macedonia developed into a world-class empire.
When Philip was a young Macedonian prince, he was taken hostage in Thebes and imprisoned for three years.Thebes at that time was one of the main warlike city-states in Greece.Philip felt the strength of Thebes. He deeply envied Thebes as a city-state, envied Thebes' rich accumulation of wealth and rich cultural heritage, especially Thebes' skilled army.Philip took a fancy to Parminondas' combat phalanx. When he succeeded the Macedonian king, he began to train the infantry, let the infantry fight in the phalanx, and equipped the soldiers with very long spears-up to 24 feet in length.Then, Philip trained the cavalry. The role of the cavalry was to cooperate with the infantry in combat. When the enemy was in chaos on the battlefield, they rushed in from the side, broke the enemy's phalanx, and then defeated the enemy.
Philip and Philip of Greece led their fine troops and continued southward with gold, a sufficient supply from the mines of Thrace.Philip captured Thrace and the Greek city-states.Many city-states bowed their heads to Philip one after another, and the patriotism of the Athenians was awakened.The Athenians led the Greek city-states in an alliance and raised an army.But this army was no match for Philip's heavy phalanx and thunder cavalry, which suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Chaeronia in 338 BC.
Although the outcome of the Battle of Chaeronia was decisive, it did not end Greek civic life and Greek history. There was still local autonomy in the Greek cities, and Greek culture was being spread at the same time. to all over the world.The battle of Chaeronia ended only a short period of division in Greece.Philip forced the Greek cities to form a Greek League and set up a Commonwealth.At this council every city-state was represented, and the Greeks, thus subject to the Macedonian kingdom, formed a formidable force, and the Greeks occupied a large part of Philip's army.While Philip was plotting his strategy to invade Asia Minor, he was killed.
The thrones of Alexander and Philip of the World, and the army more important than the throne, were inherited by his son Alexander.Alexander was only 20 years old, he was bold, bright, and a legend.His family lineage was Macedonian, but his education was Greek.His mentor is none other than Aristotle, the most prestigious philosopher in Greece.Alexander's love for Greek culture was so strong: he not only dreamed of conquering the world, but also of Hellenizing the world, and his hero was the Homeric warrior Achilles.He may be cruel and ruthless at times, but he has a deep respect for religion and his adversaries of genius.For example, shortly after Alexander succeeded to the throne, when suppressing the rebellion in Thebes, he sold the Thebes as slaves and nearly destroyed the entire city. Only the former residence and temple of the poet Pinde escaped the catastrophe and were preserved. .
Asia Minor and Syria Alexander invaded Asia Minor with only 333 to [-] soldiers.He stopped near the ruins of the ancient city of Troy to lay a wreath at the fabled tomb of Achilles.In his first pitched battle with Asia Minor, Alexander defeated the Persian satraps in Asia Minor.He could have liberated Ionia and other Greek cities and incorporated some provinces into his own territory, but Alexander chose to drive east and then south to Syria.On this march, Alexander encountered the Persian Emperor Darius III.In the famous Issus battlefield in [-] BC, Alexander defeated Darius III, so Alexander captured several Phoenician seaports, the navy of these ports originally supported Persia's maritime activities.
Egypt set out from Syria, and Alexander led his army to continue to advance invincible and invincible, and entered Egypt, which had long been unwilling to submit to Persian rule.In Egypt, Alexander proclaimed himself Pharaoh, and the local people worshiped him as the son of Amun, and he readily accepted it.Alexander also established a city on the fertile delta. Because of this glorious history, the city still retains the name he bestowed - Alexander.
After Persia left Egypt, Alexander led his army through Syria and continued eastward.In ancient Nineveh on the banks of the Tigris River, Alexander encountered the Persian emperor Darius and a new army led by him.This new army of Darius consisted of: elephants and chariots, infantry and cavalry, archers and gunners.The number of troops was astonishing, and the line marched up the plain of Arbil in mighty force.However, Alexander was not to be outdone. With his rich experience and courage, he caused Darius' army to fall into chaos, and then defeated the Persian army. Darius fled from the battlefield.The battle of Arbil in 331 BC was so decisive that Alexander entered Babylon almost without resistance.At Susa and Persepolis he looted large quantities of silver, which he minted into currency.He himself threw a burning torch into the royal palace at Persepolis, a dramatic gesture that announced the end of the Persian Empire.
India started from Persepolis, passed through Iran and Parthia, and Alexander led his army into the northwest of India.There he established cities and garrisons to maintain his power.It is not difficult to see that his covetousness for the huge wealth of India, if not for the soldiers' complaints about the hot climate, he might have traveled all over India.Afterwards, he returned to Susa and then to Babylon, where he not only sent out mining expeditions, but also made other plans.Soon, Alexander fell ill, and at this time he was going to take people to find a route that bypassed Arabia.Hard marches, recurring old injuries, and excessive drinking made his illness fatal.On his deathbed, Alexander made a dramatic last parade of troops: he let the veterans walk past him and watch him die.Alexander conquered most of the civilized world in 323 years before 12 BC.At the age of thirty-three, Alexander embarked on his last voyage of exploration, but this voyage was neither by sea nor by land.
The disintegration of Alexander's empire If Alexander had lived longer, he would have been able to organize his empire more perfectly, the empire might have lasted a long time, and his ideals might have been realized more perfectly.Instead, his generals quickly quarreled over differences that turned into wars, and Alexander's vast territory fell apart.After a series of wars, Alexander's empire was divided into three parts: Macedonia, Egypt, and Western Asia.The last part, Western Asia, is often referred to as the Seleucid Kingdom because its kings were all descended from Seleucid generals.
[-]. Hellenistic Civilization
The Hellenistic World According to Plutarch's records, in the Hellenistic world at that time, more than 70 cities that were the center of Greek civilization were all established by Alexander during his 12 years of conquest.Several of these cities were named after him, Alexander; others were named after his father, Philip; and there was a city in India called Bukfala in honor of his love, Mah Bussepha Luce.Greek temples and theaters, Greek art and literature, Greek commerce and colonists have long spread in every corner of the empire.Greek science and language had a profound influence on later generations, even more lasting than that of the Macedonian phalanx.When Greece's empire known for its wars disappeared, its cultural empire still occupied an important position in the world.
Later, the Alexander Empire disintegrated into three kingdoms. The kings of these three kingdoms were all keen on Greek civilization, so they were all under the rule of the Greek-Macedonian king.Although Macedonia is only a city-state of Greece, they still regard themselves as the leader and authority of the Greek peninsula, maintain peace on the Greek peninsula, and lead the Greeks to fight against the barbarian invasion from the Danube River Basin.The Seleucid dynasty stretched from Asia Minor to the borders of India, and it also defended all the cities of Greece-Macedonia.These cities were all carriers of the Greek spirit that Alexander had set in the heart of Asia.Even in the Egyptian Empire, high society had become Hellenized.
New cultural centers The emerging Greek cities had become centers of activity in Greek art, literature, theater and philosophy.We can name four advanced places: Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile, Pergamum in Asia Minor, Antioch in Syria, and Lot on the coast of Asia Minor.
Art Nouveau Masterpieces There were very artistic new masterpieces at the time.Many famous statues appeared in the era after Alexander, such as the beautiful goddess of victory Nick on the island of Samothrace, and Apollo, the sun god on the upper floor.Sculptors in the area of Rhodes created many famous works in the 1st century BC, the most representative is the statue of Laocoon, the famous tragic figure and his two sons, in the entanglement of two snakes Struggling and tossing.In Egypt, Greek artists imitated the painting of polychrome mosaic, which made the painting at that time reach an unprecedented prosperity.Art is more ubiquitous and more realistic.In terms of literature, poetry and drama focus more on describing the lives of ordinary people, romantic legends and love stories.The older generation of writers was not interested in these subjects.
The new adjective "Hellenistic" will inevitably lead to new forms of content in a new field, and the emergence of new opportunities will also result in new achievements, and the combination of new cultures will also produce new features.Greek culture has not only exerted a profound influence on the East, but also due to the communication with Eastern culture, the characteristics and culture of Greece itself have undergone essential changes.For example, Alexander and his 323 soldiers married Asian women, Alexander began to wear soft clothes, and at the same time he asked the tribute to kiss the dust under his feet. These are just the methods used by Eastern despots.He also ordered 30 Persian boys to learn Greek and the Macedonian art of war.After Alexander, Greek culture developed unprecedentedly.In Egypt, Greek culture and local culture complement each other.In Syria, it was integrated into Semitic culture.We should use a new adjective to describe it, so historians usually call it Hellenistic culture.The period from Alexander to the conquest of Egypt by Rome ([-] BC-[-] BC) is called the Hellenistic era in the modern East.
Egypt Hellenistic Egypt has been ruled by Greco-Macedonia.Under Greek rule, Egypt's economy developed rapidly.Greek merchants brought currency to Egypt, and the previous Egyptians used a large amount of barter instead of currency.The Greeks brought to Egypt more advanced manufacturing methods and more ingenious technology in building canals, dykes, ports, and lighthouses.At the same time, it helped the Egyptians improve their agricultural methods.The Greeks even brought scientific books on farming.Egypt's agricultural production capacity has greatly increased, and it is more qualified than in the past to be the granary of the world.The Greeks planted olive trees in Egypt and exported olive oil, which promoted the development of the local economy.The Greeks also brought new breeds of sheep, as well as books of glass, hangers, linen, perfume, and papyrus.Because of the large production of Egyptian papyrus, Egypt became the main place for making books.In the past, Egyptian books were written on papyrus by hand, which was very inconvenient.
However, we must be clear that although Egypt appears to be very prosperous and rich on the surface, the local farmers are still very poor. They are basically serfs, that is, slaves attached to the land.Although Egypt was rich on the surface, the wealth was concentrated in the hands of the royal family and exploiters.
In Egypt, although the wealth was controlled by the king and the ruling class, the local culture still flourished because the nobles liked art.The muses of the Ptolemaic royal family established a library in Alexandria that contained more than 50 volumes.In honor of the Muise, they called the academy the "Museum".The aristocrats built colleges in the palace for free for scholars to conduct scientific research, which greatly promoted the development of culture.Some people also copied and disseminated famous books, further promoting the development of Egyptian culture.
The development and expansion of the natural sciences of geography and astronomy were the most creative and glorious achievements of the Hellenistic era.The development of geography originated from Alexander's expeditions, expedition voyages and commercial expansion.By the 3rd century BC, geographers had a clear idea of the shape and size of the land.At that time, there was a man named Eratosthenes in Greece who was very clever. He observed the sun from two different directions and calculated that the circumference of the earth was [-] miles.In view of the actual situation at that time, this number is very scientific and surprising.Eratosthenes and Columbus have the same opinion in some respects.Because they all once asserted that as long as people sailed westward and crossed the Atlantic Ocean, they could reach India.The difference, however, is that Columbus did not conjecture that the Earth was round until many years after Eratosthenes.
Hellenistic astronomers knew that the Earth was a sphere, but most believed it to be stationary.Aristarchus, a bold prophet on the island of Samos, spoke the truth. He believed that the sun is much larger than the earth, and that the earth revolves around the sun.In addition, he said that the earth rotates on its own axis every day.But no one believed him at that time, because his thinking was too advanced, far beyond the era he was in!
Biology and Anatomy In the 3rd century BC, biology, the study of living things, was active in Alexander's time.There was an interesting story at that time: during his expedition, Alexander was able to have leisure time to send the specimens of animals and plants found in Asia to Aristotle in Athens.Scientists in Egypt were free to dissect the bodies of animals and humans, so they knew many things that could only be guessed but not confirmed in Greece in the past.In the early 3rd century BC, Herophilus made a major discovery in Alexandria: what the arteries convey is not air, but blood, the brain is the seat of intelligence, nerves convey sensations, and the pulse provides a means for checking health and detecting diseases. reference index.This major discovery has made a major contribution to the biological research of later generations.
Mathematics and Physics In the 3rd century BC, in Alexandria, a Greek named Euclid summed up the geometry at that time and wrote "Thirteen Chapters".Because almost every chapter uses a roll of papyrus, it is also called "Thirteen Volumes". For more than 2000 years, people have used his writings as the basis for studying geometry.There is also Archimedes of Syracuse, who used both geometry and algebra to calculate several important theorems.In addition, he has specialized studies on circles, spheres and cones.Not only that, but he also has some understanding of the laws of gravity and floating bodies.One day, the king of Syracuse asked Archimedes if his new crown was made of pure gold.The clever Archimedes put the crown and the equal weight of pure gold in a bucket of water, and recorded the difference in displacement between the crown and pure gold, thus solving the problem of whether the king's crown is pure gold.
Archimedes also worked on the lever theorem.Regarding the lever theorem, he also has a well-known saying: "Give me a fulcrum, and I can move the whole earth."Archimedes used levers, screws and gears to make a machine that could turn ships.In addition, he invented a mechanism capable of throwing heavy bullets.Once, when the Romans besieged Syracuse, he used this mechanism against the enemy.It is said that he also used the principle of mirror reflection to set enemy ships on fire.
Inventions In addition, there are other inventions, such as: water pumps, water mills, lacquer washers, door openers and other daily necessities.However, what surprised us is why the scientific inventions at that time were rarely applied in production and daily life?The reason is simple: for many Greek scholars, science was too "pure" and "abstract" for their ordinary work.Undoubtedly, the price of labor was very low at that time, and there was absolutely no need to replace labor with machinery.That might still be a waste.
Religion In terms of religious concepts, the Greeks also experienced numerous changes, because Greece had in-depth contacts with other peoples in business and other aspects in the early days.At the same time, the growth and development of natural science also affected their belief in gods and goddesses to a certain extent.Therefore, the Greeks worshiped foreign gods on some occasions, or they even combined their original beliefs with those of other countries.For example, in Egypt, Greek and Egyptian rituals were wonderfully and perfectly combined in the worship of Serapis.
Philosophy Philosophers, ardently seeking the origin of life and the world, found that many men seemed to ascribe, not to Zeus the thunder, or the storms of the sea to Poseidon, or other wonders of nature to various gods and goddesses, but, on the contrary, they all Tend to see the universe as a machine, a gigantic machine governed by the laws of science.
But there remains an unresolved question about human happiness: How can a person get the happiness he wants?Three different schools, or groups of philosophers, have answered this question in three different ways.
One was the Cynic school, whose most famous spokesman was Diogenes.Diogenes always wore tattered clothes and lived in a barrel.He said: "One must first understand oneself and at the same time live according to one's own nature".The second was the Epicurean school, who advocated finding happiness in pleasure—without pain, trouble, and hope.This kind of happiness refers not only to physical happiness, but also spiritual happiness.But this is a selfish philosophy because it deprives people of the pursuit of their dreams in life and makes people lose the motivation to work hard.The third is the Stoics. Most of the Stoics are theists, and they advocate the idea of "everyone is equal".The Semitic Zeno was the representative of the Stoic school and the mentor of its members.He advocated that one must live according to reason and nature."Everything is naturally reasonable and good, so people don't have to grieve over things that seem unfortunate," he said.
(End of this chapter)
[-]. The Fall of the Walls of the Greek World
The Greek world We should all remember the Greek world. This world is huge and includes many places.Not only does it have Athens and the Aegean Sea region, it also includes hundreds of other Greek cities.The Greek world is widely distributed. It has its territory in the Greek peninsula, the Black Sea coast, Sicily, southern Italy, and even its colonies can be seen on the Mediterranean coast of France and Spain.Each of these Greek city-states is worth studying for its government, its architecture, its sculpture, its development of literature and thought.And we specifically choose to study Athens because Athens is relatively outstanding in all aspects, and it is also better than other city-states.
Collapsing Walls In 404 BC, the walls of Athens were demolished due to defeat.However, what many people did not expect is that with the demolition of the walls of Athens, the Greek world is slowly undergoing great changes.These changes were not anticipated, and they were not intentional.There are many walls like Greece in other Greek cities.These walls used to be the protection of the city-state, and it is precisely because of these walls that people love the city-state more, and it is easier to give affection to the city-state.It can be said that these walls not only play a protective role, but also have a certain degree of restrictive effect.Because before these walls were demolished, Greek culture only developed in a small space, and there were no good channels to spread it.Presumably it was not until most of the city walls were demolished that Greek culture could spread to the wider world.The stone walls of Athens may be too hard to be torn down, but the spiritual walls in people's hearts are slowly falling down because they are too fragile.Due to the independence of the city-state, the city wall encloses the citizens in the city, which makes the patriotism of the people develop inside the city-state. This also causes people to focus on the local acropolis, but they are indifferent to the outside world.The physical walls are also spiritual walls. When the walls of Athens were demolished, the spiritual walls of the Athenians also collapsed and disintegrated.
From another point of view, the nature of Greek civilization has changed. It is no longer just a city-state civilization, but continues to expand outward, becoming a national civilization and a world civilization.Especially for the 3rd century BC - 4th century BC, this change is more obvious.Its course of change can be seen in political life as well as in other ways of life.In addition, the demolition of the walls of Athens was influenced by external influences, and similarly, the expansion of spiritual forces and the development of civilization came from outside.
The move toward united Greek political expansion had already begun in the 4th century BC.For example: Several city-states in Greece combined to form a larger alliance group.Before the Greek and Persian Wars, Sparta had reached a consensus with some other city-states under its military leadership and formed the Peloponnesian League.After Athens defeated the Persians, the cities of the Aegean Sea were also unified under the management of Athens.Many politicians in Greece are trying to make the joint cooperation closer. Even if they do not form a real alliance, they hope to dissolve the confrontation between the two alliance camps and let them work together with other Greek city-states to formulate a plan to maintain relative peace. way.
In terms of the integration of religious beliefs, languages, and customs, the Greek culture has an obvious unity, and this unity has long existed, which is conducive to the realization of this peace.At that time, almost all the Greeks worshiped Zeus very much, as well as some other important gods. Many Greek cities and even remote areas sent their representatives to participate in various religious activities. Fei held the Pito Games, the purpose is to commemorate and worship Apollo.
Barriers to Unity Although similarities in these respects could serve as bonds of unity among city-states, the Greek city-states were still keenly aware of their differences.They were therefore not united, and between 431 BC and 404 BC the disastrous Peloponnesian War took place on the Greek peninsula.
In ancient Greece, division has always been the political weakness of the city-states, and they have suffered a lot in this regard.There were two main reasons for the long-term division and constant conflict in the Greek world: one was that Athens and Sparta controlled many city-states that appeared to be united, but some of them were weak The city-states are too oppressed, and they are more or less dissatisfied with their current situation, hoping to get rid of the big city-states and regain their autonomy; another reason is that many city-states hope to become the leaders of Greece, rather than being ruled by other city-states. control.The big city-states struggle with each other and contain each other, and they all have their own followers.Sparta took its neighbors for itself during the Peloponnesian War; Athens claimed the Aegean Sea; Syracuse took most of Sicily.However, none of the three city-states could complete the unification of the entire Greek world.
The defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War made Sparta the leader of East Greece and Syracuse the leader of West Greece.However, for Sparta at that time, whether it was dealing with weaker city-states such as Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, or dealing with the powerful Persian state, it was not an easy task, and it seemed a little powerless. Syracuse is also in the same situation. It has many local enemies, including the Carthaginians, who are opposing its control.
Internal rivalry Syracuse might have done well in the west without the Carthaginians making trouble.In 480 BC, the Carthaginians were defeated by Syracuse and Accragas in Greece and Mexico. The defeat of the Carthaginians made Sicily free and liberated for 70 years.By 409 BC, however, Sicily was once again under threat from Africa.This year, the coast of Sicily was suddenly attacked by the Carthaginian fleet. Two Greek cities on the island were destroyed by it. Tens of thousands of Greek women were looted, and tons of spoils were shipped back to Carthage.Three years later, the Carthaginians destroyed another Greek city in Sicily in the same barbarous manner.At this point, the Carthaginians completely controlled the entire western part of Sicily.
Dionysius the dictator In 405 BC, Dionysius was just a young soldier at that time. Taking advantage of the unstable situation at that time, he became the leader of Syracuse on his own.He kept fighting for power for himself, and besides that, he set two goals: one was to rescue Sicily from the rule of Carthage; the other was to hope that Syracuse could unify Western Greece.He led a powerful army against Carthage, finally liberated all but the western tip of Sicily, and ruled the whole of Sicily.While fighting Carthage, he extended his sphere of influence in Italy, occupying the entire toe of the Italian boot.Furthermore, the Adriatic coast became his colony, the maritime trade was also controlled by him, and the two islands of Corsica and Elba also became his sphere of influence.
The dictatorship of Dionysius made Syracuse the economic and political center of Western Greece.However, many of his practices were unpopular and in some ways too cruel and ruthless, such as imposing high taxes, lacking respect for temples and religions, and recruiting foreigners in the army.Moreover, he is accustomed to all kinds of "bad deeds", which arouses dissatisfaction among the people.Dionysius died in 367 BC.Soon after his death, the once mighty imperial rule collapsed, and Western Greece returned to a state of division.
The failure of Sparta and the joint operation in East Greece were also unsuccessful.In the thirty years following its victory in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta was the most powerful of all city-states, but also the most impudent and overbearing.Sparta has always wanted to establish a military dictatorship in Athens and other city-states to replace the original local liberal democracy.The differences in the ruling system caused the city-states to hate Sparta, especially Sparta's leadership style.And Sparta actually united with the Persian Empire, which made it even more unpopular and completely lost the trust of other city-states.It may even be said unceremoniously that Spartan leadership has become a kind of child's play mockery.
The rebellion could not be avoided.In 371 BC, Epaminondas, the military genius of Thebes, led Thebes to fight through Leuktra, completely destroying the Spartan front and army.In the following years, Thebes naturally became the leader of the Eastern Greek city-states.Unfortunately, the good times didn't last long, and history repeated itself again: constant rebellion, constant war, eternal division.
A foreign conqueror, a city-state in the Greek peninsula, exhausted its manpower and material resources because of the long war.The contradiction and balance between city-states was once a huge engine of Greek civilization, which greatly stimulated the progress of Greek civilization.The city-states not only competed with each other in politics, but also competed with each other in sports and literature and art. The competition made them achieve outstanding results.But from the 5th century BC to the 4th century BC, this kind of competition and stimulation became a sharp double-edged sword.The conflict between them has turned into a protracted war.Until 338 BC, Philip of Macedon invaded the Greek peninsula.The war between the Greek city-states finally stopped, but this state of peace did not last long.
Political and Social Changes Before telling the history of how Macedonia conquered the Greek peninsula, it is necessary to talk about Macedonia's political, economic, artistic and ideological development and changes.In the 4th century BC, Macedonia underwent earth-shaking changes, and soon after, the independent Greek world came to an end.
For example, according to the traditional concept, the army of a city-state should recruit local citizens as soldiers, but this concept gradually disappeared.Because many soldiers of the Greek city-states are no longer city-state citizens, many of them are mercenaries and have no citizenship themselves.There have also been changes in politics. An important manifestation is that the aristocratic class no longer occupies the main positions in the government. Leaders can also be elected from among the common people, which can better reflect the wishes of the common people.Economic shifts loom large, helping to shed light on where political developments are headed.Many poor people are dissatisfied with the miserable status quo, and their resistance is growing day by day.The rich enjoy leisure time and luxuries, while the poor have to endure rising prices and living expenses.As for the reasons for rising prices, one is that the purchasing power of money has decreased, while the circulation of money has increased.Another reason was that Athens and many other city-states preferred imports, and their growing dependence on imported food caused inflation.In addition, big merchants always want to monopolize the whole market and try to raise the price of goods.
The increasing intensification of slavery was also an important aspect of change.The slave population in Athens was very large. In the 4th century BC, the slaves in Athens accounted for more than half of the total population.
Greek civilization, including art, architecture, speech, science and philosophy, as well as politics and economics, etc., these cultural changes reflect the changes in Greek life at that time.
4. Greek culture in the [-]th century BC
The formality and seriousness of the past are gone, replaced by elegance and freedom.The work objects of sculptors and architects are no longer just temples, they spend more energy and painstaking efforts on houses, tombs and theaters.Although the number of god statues they made decreased, they made the god statues more personal, and more statues of living people were born in their hands.The great sculptors, including Praxiteles, preferred to carve such lifelike representatives of sexual beauty as Hermes and Aphrodite, rather than the rigid and armed Athena or the solemn Olympian Zeus. .Some critics believe that "Aphrodite on Milos", commonly known as "Venus with the Broken Arm", is from this period.
It is said that the painters of this period surpassed all the painters of the past.But because of their paintings, apart from the carvings on the vessels, very few have been preserved.So we have no way to comment on this.
Architects of this period built huge mansions and decorated them with great detail.Early Greek temples were often rare and simple in design—a single-layer rectangular shape structure, with several rows of round or square pillars erected on two or four sides of the temple.The above-mentioned Parthenon is undoubtedly the most graceful example of a Greek temple.Before the 4th century BC, the style of the columns was mostly "Dorian". Although the "Dorian" style is relatively simple, it can give people a sense of solemnity. There will be symmetrical outlines where necessary, and the design that tapers to the top is very elegant and elegant.In the 4th century BC, the "Ionian style" developed in Asia Minor became more popular.The Ionic columns are relatively slender and slender, not sharp, and the load-bearing foundation stone and column crowns are all carved with flower-like patterns.There was a third style, which was very popular in the following centuries, and was called the "Corinthian style", which had tall columns and crowns carved with ornate buttercup leaves.
Transitional literature Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes once gave Athens the title of "House of Theater", but there were two changes in the script: (1) The religion of the drama The ingredients were reduced, and even dared to satirize the politicians and the bad habits prevailing at that time; (2) Other cities also built theaters.At the end of the 4th century BC, theaters were built in the larger Greek cities in the highly civilized Mediterranean region.Greek actors not only performed classical works of the last century, but also performed many new plays.In short, the theater became one of the characteristics of Greek urban life.
Oratory The highest development period of Greek oratory was the 4th century BC - the eve of the occupation of various Greek city-states by invaders.The advent of government and the creation of juries created a need for the art of public speaking.Aspiring young men in Athens, Syracuse, and other Greek cities devoted years and years to training for legal and political careers.They studied politics, history, and literature in addition to their studies in the art of eloquence.The greatest orator in Greece, and probably the greatest orator in history - Demosthenes (384-322 BC).He was born in a wealthy family, and after his guardians conspired to take away his property, Demosthenes grew up as a member of the disadvantaged class.Although he did not receive conventional training like the average Greek child, he worked hard and determined to become an influential orator.There were many stories about him afterward—how he practiced speaking with a pebble in his mouth to make up for his speech deficits, how he increased the intensity of his voice by shouting into roaring waves.In the end, he defeated the insidious guardian and finally won the case.So he became a professional writer who wrote defenses for the parties' defenders before the jury.He managed to become one of the leading politicians in Athens.Using straightforward logical thinking like a beam of light and heart-piercing words like a sharp arrow, he wanted to awaken the spirit of serving the public in the Athenians that had been buried deep in their hearts.He publicly strongly condemned the indifference and corruption that had gradually infiltrated into political life, and pointed out that the surrounding barbarians attempted to invade and conquer Greece, especially Macedonia in the north of Greece.He spurred Athens to become the leader of the entire Greek army and led the Greeks to bravely resist the Macedonian king Philip.
The "Running of Philip" is by far the best-known of Demosthenes' speeches, though perhaps not his finest.He lashed out at Philip, and at the same time called on the Greeks to unite and bravely resist the invader Philip.However, all the city-states belonging to Greece eventually surrendered to Philip's forceful conquest, and Demosthenes finally had to leave his hometown and go into exile, and could not return to his hometown.
Science In the 4th century BC, Greece made the most astonishing breakthroughs in science, philosophy, and ethics.This breakthrough was due to the fact that the Greeks learned more about ancient civilizations in Egyptian and Western Asian cultures.There is a trend in new thinking, which is to try to explain the world with simple, less complicated elements or principles.A more popular theory is: all things are composed of four elements, in simple terms, they are heat, cold, wet and dry respectively represented by fire, air, water and earth, and intimacy and hostility are the factors that contribute to these four elements. Reasons for elements to come together or separate.
In the three fields of astronomy, mathematics and medicine, Greece has also made substantial breakthroughs.The timing of solar and lunar eclipses can be detected in advance, and the causes of the phenomenon have also been confirmed one by one.After Thales, Pythagoras and others discovered most of the theorems in elementary geometry that are still taught today.In medicine, Hippocrates and others laid a solid foundation.Hippocrates (460 BC-377 BC) is still known as the "Father of Medicine".Although he was troubled by the lack of chemical knowledge at that time, and that it was wrong to dissect a corpse at that time, he still found the original prescriptions and medicines, just like all the rules and regulations needed in hygiene, diet, medicine and surgery. principle, and asserted that "in every disease there is a natural cause".
Philosophy and philosophers 4th century BC Teachers of oratory, law, morality, and religion, often called Sophists, a title derived from the Greek word for wisdom (Sophia) .They see themselves as intelligent teachers.It is true, sometimes, they have not gained much glory in essence, and we are now accustomed to treat "sophistry" with a harsh eye.However, many of them deserve the honor of being valued, and they are always traveling in different places and speaking or expounding their academic theories in public.They are not only the first professional teachers in the history of the world to use the skill of eloquence, but also the first professional teachers in the world to teach political and social sciences.The three great teachers in this period are Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. We generally call them philosophers, not sophists.Socrates (469 BC-399 BC) was a person who was at the forefront of the times. He was Plato's teacher, he taught Plato knowledge, and Plato was Aristotle's teacher.Socrates was not originally a professional teacher who worked for remuneration. In fact, he was a person who boldly pursued the truth.Day after day, he ran around in the market of Athens city to give lectures and impart knowledge, treating rich and poor city residents equally, and he would teach them the same answers to the questions of these two types of people.But to the surprise of future generations, he was misunderstood and slandered by the people at that time. In the end, the government sentenced him to death, and his life was ended hastily.
Plato (427-347 BC) is arguably the greatest of Socrates' disciples.He is also a very famous teacher and writer.He put forward an interesting theory: whether it is what we see with our eyes or what we feel with our bodies, they are just invisible shadows independent of the things themselves; and he believes that God created the universe so that the universe can exist.One of Plato's most important achievements was the founding of a school called the Academy on the outskirts of Athens.
Plato's greatest and most proud disciple - Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC), because he was born in Stakila, Macedonia, people often call him "Stakila".He created a different school called Lyceum.His students were always called the "Peripatetics" because Aristotle usually paced back and forth while teaching them.He has written many books on all sciences.His greatness is not only because of his rich knowledge, but also because of his precise method and logical thinking style in his investigation and research.He wrote an unsurpassed book on logical thinking and how to think right.Nearly 2000 years after his death, he has been revered as "the only philosopher", and there are still many scholars who read his works with admiration for him.
[-]. Alexander's Empire
Macedonia and Philip Finally, the Greek city-states were conquered by the Kingdom of Macedonia.Macedonia was rarely mentioned until the middle of the 4th century BC, and was also known as Macedonia.The Greeks considered the Macedonian kingdom not only "barbaric", but also rough and backward.But the Macedonians learned a considerable amount from the Greeks, which played a large role in the Macedonian occupation of Greece.Later, with the prevalence of Greek culture in the Kingdom of Macedonia, Macedonia developed into a world-class empire.
When Philip was a young Macedonian prince, he was taken hostage in Thebes and imprisoned for three years.Thebes at that time was one of the main warlike city-states in Greece.Philip felt the strength of Thebes. He deeply envied Thebes as a city-state, envied Thebes' rich accumulation of wealth and rich cultural heritage, especially Thebes' skilled army.Philip took a fancy to Parminondas' combat phalanx. When he succeeded the Macedonian king, he began to train the infantry, let the infantry fight in the phalanx, and equipped the soldiers with very long spears-up to 24 feet in length.Then, Philip trained the cavalry. The role of the cavalry was to cooperate with the infantry in combat. When the enemy was in chaos on the battlefield, they rushed in from the side, broke the enemy's phalanx, and then defeated the enemy.
Philip and Philip of Greece led their fine troops and continued southward with gold, a sufficient supply from the mines of Thrace.Philip captured Thrace and the Greek city-states.Many city-states bowed their heads to Philip one after another, and the patriotism of the Athenians was awakened.The Athenians led the Greek city-states in an alliance and raised an army.But this army was no match for Philip's heavy phalanx and thunder cavalry, which suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Chaeronia in 338 BC.
Although the outcome of the Battle of Chaeronia was decisive, it did not end Greek civic life and Greek history. There was still local autonomy in the Greek cities, and Greek culture was being spread at the same time. to all over the world.The battle of Chaeronia ended only a short period of division in Greece.Philip forced the Greek cities to form a Greek League and set up a Commonwealth.At this council every city-state was represented, and the Greeks, thus subject to the Macedonian kingdom, formed a formidable force, and the Greeks occupied a large part of Philip's army.While Philip was plotting his strategy to invade Asia Minor, he was killed.
The thrones of Alexander and Philip of the World, and the army more important than the throne, were inherited by his son Alexander.Alexander was only 20 years old, he was bold, bright, and a legend.His family lineage was Macedonian, but his education was Greek.His mentor is none other than Aristotle, the most prestigious philosopher in Greece.Alexander's love for Greek culture was so strong: he not only dreamed of conquering the world, but also of Hellenizing the world, and his hero was the Homeric warrior Achilles.He may be cruel and ruthless at times, but he has a deep respect for religion and his adversaries of genius.For example, shortly after Alexander succeeded to the throne, when suppressing the rebellion in Thebes, he sold the Thebes as slaves and nearly destroyed the entire city. Only the former residence and temple of the poet Pinde escaped the catastrophe and were preserved. .
Asia Minor and Syria Alexander invaded Asia Minor with only 333 to [-] soldiers.He stopped near the ruins of the ancient city of Troy to lay a wreath at the fabled tomb of Achilles.In his first pitched battle with Asia Minor, Alexander defeated the Persian satraps in Asia Minor.He could have liberated Ionia and other Greek cities and incorporated some provinces into his own territory, but Alexander chose to drive east and then south to Syria.On this march, Alexander encountered the Persian Emperor Darius III.In the famous Issus battlefield in [-] BC, Alexander defeated Darius III, so Alexander captured several Phoenician seaports, the navy of these ports originally supported Persia's maritime activities.
Egypt set out from Syria, and Alexander led his army to continue to advance invincible and invincible, and entered Egypt, which had long been unwilling to submit to Persian rule.In Egypt, Alexander proclaimed himself Pharaoh, and the local people worshiped him as the son of Amun, and he readily accepted it.Alexander also established a city on the fertile delta. Because of this glorious history, the city still retains the name he bestowed - Alexander.
After Persia left Egypt, Alexander led his army through Syria and continued eastward.In ancient Nineveh on the banks of the Tigris River, Alexander encountered the Persian emperor Darius and a new army led by him.This new army of Darius consisted of: elephants and chariots, infantry and cavalry, archers and gunners.The number of troops was astonishing, and the line marched up the plain of Arbil in mighty force.However, Alexander was not to be outdone. With his rich experience and courage, he caused Darius' army to fall into chaos, and then defeated the Persian army. Darius fled from the battlefield.The battle of Arbil in 331 BC was so decisive that Alexander entered Babylon almost without resistance.At Susa and Persepolis he looted large quantities of silver, which he minted into currency.He himself threw a burning torch into the royal palace at Persepolis, a dramatic gesture that announced the end of the Persian Empire.
India started from Persepolis, passed through Iran and Parthia, and Alexander led his army into the northwest of India.There he established cities and garrisons to maintain his power.It is not difficult to see that his covetousness for the huge wealth of India, if not for the soldiers' complaints about the hot climate, he might have traveled all over India.Afterwards, he returned to Susa and then to Babylon, where he not only sent out mining expeditions, but also made other plans.Soon, Alexander fell ill, and at this time he was going to take people to find a route that bypassed Arabia.Hard marches, recurring old injuries, and excessive drinking made his illness fatal.On his deathbed, Alexander made a dramatic last parade of troops: he let the veterans walk past him and watch him die.Alexander conquered most of the civilized world in 323 years before 12 BC.At the age of thirty-three, Alexander embarked on his last voyage of exploration, but this voyage was neither by sea nor by land.
The disintegration of Alexander's empire If Alexander had lived longer, he would have been able to organize his empire more perfectly, the empire might have lasted a long time, and his ideals might have been realized more perfectly.Instead, his generals quickly quarreled over differences that turned into wars, and Alexander's vast territory fell apart.After a series of wars, Alexander's empire was divided into three parts: Macedonia, Egypt, and Western Asia.The last part, Western Asia, is often referred to as the Seleucid Kingdom because its kings were all descended from Seleucid generals.
[-]. Hellenistic Civilization
The Hellenistic World According to Plutarch's records, in the Hellenistic world at that time, more than 70 cities that were the center of Greek civilization were all established by Alexander during his 12 years of conquest.Several of these cities were named after him, Alexander; others were named after his father, Philip; and there was a city in India called Bukfala in honor of his love, Mah Bussepha Luce.Greek temples and theaters, Greek art and literature, Greek commerce and colonists have long spread in every corner of the empire.Greek science and language had a profound influence on later generations, even more lasting than that of the Macedonian phalanx.When Greece's empire known for its wars disappeared, its cultural empire still occupied an important position in the world.
Later, the Alexander Empire disintegrated into three kingdoms. The kings of these three kingdoms were all keen on Greek civilization, so they were all under the rule of the Greek-Macedonian king.Although Macedonia is only a city-state of Greece, they still regard themselves as the leader and authority of the Greek peninsula, maintain peace on the Greek peninsula, and lead the Greeks to fight against the barbarian invasion from the Danube River Basin.The Seleucid dynasty stretched from Asia Minor to the borders of India, and it also defended all the cities of Greece-Macedonia.These cities were all carriers of the Greek spirit that Alexander had set in the heart of Asia.Even in the Egyptian Empire, high society had become Hellenized.
New cultural centers The emerging Greek cities had become centers of activity in Greek art, literature, theater and philosophy.We can name four advanced places: Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile, Pergamum in Asia Minor, Antioch in Syria, and Lot on the coast of Asia Minor.
Art Nouveau Masterpieces There were very artistic new masterpieces at the time.Many famous statues appeared in the era after Alexander, such as the beautiful goddess of victory Nick on the island of Samothrace, and Apollo, the sun god on the upper floor.Sculptors in the area of Rhodes created many famous works in the 1st century BC, the most representative is the statue of Laocoon, the famous tragic figure and his two sons, in the entanglement of two snakes Struggling and tossing.In Egypt, Greek artists imitated the painting of polychrome mosaic, which made the painting at that time reach an unprecedented prosperity.Art is more ubiquitous and more realistic.In terms of literature, poetry and drama focus more on describing the lives of ordinary people, romantic legends and love stories.The older generation of writers was not interested in these subjects.
The new adjective "Hellenistic" will inevitably lead to new forms of content in a new field, and the emergence of new opportunities will also result in new achievements, and the combination of new cultures will also produce new features.Greek culture has not only exerted a profound influence on the East, but also due to the communication with Eastern culture, the characteristics and culture of Greece itself have undergone essential changes.For example, Alexander and his 323 soldiers married Asian women, Alexander began to wear soft clothes, and at the same time he asked the tribute to kiss the dust under his feet. These are just the methods used by Eastern despots.He also ordered 30 Persian boys to learn Greek and the Macedonian art of war.After Alexander, Greek culture developed unprecedentedly.In Egypt, Greek culture and local culture complement each other.In Syria, it was integrated into Semitic culture.We should use a new adjective to describe it, so historians usually call it Hellenistic culture.The period from Alexander to the conquest of Egypt by Rome ([-] BC-[-] BC) is called the Hellenistic era in the modern East.
Egypt Hellenistic Egypt has been ruled by Greco-Macedonia.Under Greek rule, Egypt's economy developed rapidly.Greek merchants brought currency to Egypt, and the previous Egyptians used a large amount of barter instead of currency.The Greeks brought to Egypt more advanced manufacturing methods and more ingenious technology in building canals, dykes, ports, and lighthouses.At the same time, it helped the Egyptians improve their agricultural methods.The Greeks even brought scientific books on farming.Egypt's agricultural production capacity has greatly increased, and it is more qualified than in the past to be the granary of the world.The Greeks planted olive trees in Egypt and exported olive oil, which promoted the development of the local economy.The Greeks also brought new breeds of sheep, as well as books of glass, hangers, linen, perfume, and papyrus.Because of the large production of Egyptian papyrus, Egypt became the main place for making books.In the past, Egyptian books were written on papyrus by hand, which was very inconvenient.
However, we must be clear that although Egypt appears to be very prosperous and rich on the surface, the local farmers are still very poor. They are basically serfs, that is, slaves attached to the land.Although Egypt was rich on the surface, the wealth was concentrated in the hands of the royal family and exploiters.
In Egypt, although the wealth was controlled by the king and the ruling class, the local culture still flourished because the nobles liked art.The muses of the Ptolemaic royal family established a library in Alexandria that contained more than 50 volumes.In honor of the Muise, they called the academy the "Museum".The aristocrats built colleges in the palace for free for scholars to conduct scientific research, which greatly promoted the development of culture.Some people also copied and disseminated famous books, further promoting the development of Egyptian culture.
The development and expansion of the natural sciences of geography and astronomy were the most creative and glorious achievements of the Hellenistic era.The development of geography originated from Alexander's expeditions, expedition voyages and commercial expansion.By the 3rd century BC, geographers had a clear idea of the shape and size of the land.At that time, there was a man named Eratosthenes in Greece who was very clever. He observed the sun from two different directions and calculated that the circumference of the earth was [-] miles.In view of the actual situation at that time, this number is very scientific and surprising.Eratosthenes and Columbus have the same opinion in some respects.Because they all once asserted that as long as people sailed westward and crossed the Atlantic Ocean, they could reach India.The difference, however, is that Columbus did not conjecture that the Earth was round until many years after Eratosthenes.
Hellenistic astronomers knew that the Earth was a sphere, but most believed it to be stationary.Aristarchus, a bold prophet on the island of Samos, spoke the truth. He believed that the sun is much larger than the earth, and that the earth revolves around the sun.In addition, he said that the earth rotates on its own axis every day.But no one believed him at that time, because his thinking was too advanced, far beyond the era he was in!
Biology and Anatomy In the 3rd century BC, biology, the study of living things, was active in Alexander's time.There was an interesting story at that time: during his expedition, Alexander was able to have leisure time to send the specimens of animals and plants found in Asia to Aristotle in Athens.Scientists in Egypt were free to dissect the bodies of animals and humans, so they knew many things that could only be guessed but not confirmed in Greece in the past.In the early 3rd century BC, Herophilus made a major discovery in Alexandria: what the arteries convey is not air, but blood, the brain is the seat of intelligence, nerves convey sensations, and the pulse provides a means for checking health and detecting diseases. reference index.This major discovery has made a major contribution to the biological research of later generations.
Mathematics and Physics In the 3rd century BC, in Alexandria, a Greek named Euclid summed up the geometry at that time and wrote "Thirteen Chapters".Because almost every chapter uses a roll of papyrus, it is also called "Thirteen Volumes". For more than 2000 years, people have used his writings as the basis for studying geometry.There is also Archimedes of Syracuse, who used both geometry and algebra to calculate several important theorems.In addition, he has specialized studies on circles, spheres and cones.Not only that, but he also has some understanding of the laws of gravity and floating bodies.One day, the king of Syracuse asked Archimedes if his new crown was made of pure gold.The clever Archimedes put the crown and the equal weight of pure gold in a bucket of water, and recorded the difference in displacement between the crown and pure gold, thus solving the problem of whether the king's crown is pure gold.
Archimedes also worked on the lever theorem.Regarding the lever theorem, he also has a well-known saying: "Give me a fulcrum, and I can move the whole earth."Archimedes used levers, screws and gears to make a machine that could turn ships.In addition, he invented a mechanism capable of throwing heavy bullets.Once, when the Romans besieged Syracuse, he used this mechanism against the enemy.It is said that he also used the principle of mirror reflection to set enemy ships on fire.
Inventions In addition, there are other inventions, such as: water pumps, water mills, lacquer washers, door openers and other daily necessities.However, what surprised us is why the scientific inventions at that time were rarely applied in production and daily life?The reason is simple: for many Greek scholars, science was too "pure" and "abstract" for their ordinary work.Undoubtedly, the price of labor was very low at that time, and there was absolutely no need to replace labor with machinery.That might still be a waste.
Religion In terms of religious concepts, the Greeks also experienced numerous changes, because Greece had in-depth contacts with other peoples in business and other aspects in the early days.At the same time, the growth and development of natural science also affected their belief in gods and goddesses to a certain extent.Therefore, the Greeks worshiped foreign gods on some occasions, or they even combined their original beliefs with those of other countries.For example, in Egypt, Greek and Egyptian rituals were wonderfully and perfectly combined in the worship of Serapis.
Philosophy Philosophers, ardently seeking the origin of life and the world, found that many men seemed to ascribe, not to Zeus the thunder, or the storms of the sea to Poseidon, or other wonders of nature to various gods and goddesses, but, on the contrary, they all Tend to see the universe as a machine, a gigantic machine governed by the laws of science.
But there remains an unresolved question about human happiness: How can a person get the happiness he wants?Three different schools, or groups of philosophers, have answered this question in three different ways.
One was the Cynic school, whose most famous spokesman was Diogenes.Diogenes always wore tattered clothes and lived in a barrel.He said: "One must first understand oneself and at the same time live according to one's own nature".The second was the Epicurean school, who advocated finding happiness in pleasure—without pain, trouble, and hope.This kind of happiness refers not only to physical happiness, but also spiritual happiness.But this is a selfish philosophy because it deprives people of the pursuit of their dreams in life and makes people lose the motivation to work hard.The third is the Stoics. Most of the Stoics are theists, and they advocate the idea of "everyone is equal".The Semitic Zeno was the representative of the Stoic school and the mentor of its members.He advocated that one must live according to reason and nature."Everything is naturally reasonable and good, so people don't have to grieve over things that seem unfortunate," he said.
(End of this chapter)
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