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Chapter 51 The "Copernican" Revolution in the History of Philosophy
Chapter 50 The "Copernican" Revolution in the History of Philosophy: "Critique of Pure Reason"

The Critique of Pure Reason is one of Kant's three major criticisms and is his most important work. The Critique of Pure Reason

The goal

It lies in grasping the characteristics of rationality.The whole book focuses on the investigation and research of the nature and ability of human reason, and the comprehensive understanding of rational ability.

The domain and scope are specified in detail.At the same time, Kant strictly distinguished reason and intellectual ability, and clearly defined the relationship between philosophy and natural science.

The unique categories and research objects of science and mathematics point out the future and new direction of the existence and development of philosophy.famous
Two "antinomies" propositions are put forward in "Critique of Pure Reason".

Criticism of reason is supreme

Kant (1724～1804), born in Germany, the founder of German classical idealism, engaged in education for 49 years in his life,
Is a typical German scholar.Kant created a critical era of philosophy, he raised reason to the supremacy
Everything must be criticized, even the sacred religion and the law of dignity can only be judged rationally.

In order to get a real new life.His most important philosophical work is the famous "Three Criticisms" - a systematic exposition of the philosophical
Fundamental ideas, especially the Critique of Pure Reason in epistemology, the Critique of Practical Reason in ethics, and the
The Critique of Judgment on Teleology and Aesthetics.

"The Critique of Pure Reason" was first published in 1781. According to Kant himself, this work was spent almost 12 years on his mind.
product of thought.He claims that the purpose of writing this book is to analyze the possibility of knowledge (mathematics, natural science, metaphysics)

sexual issues.

expounding the transcendentalism blockbuster book

The main content of the book "Critique of Pure Reason" is the description of a priori theory and a priori methodology, which is divided into two parts.

Part discusses the same issue from both positive and negative aspects, that is, to explain the nature, ability and scope of human cognition, and to expound human cognition.

Ability can only be applied to the phenomenal world, and noumenon can only be grasped by faith, which shows that human knowledge cannot grasp the universe as a whole.
body, not enough to establish a new metaphysics.

The introduction of "Critique of Pure Reason" mainly expounds the theory that scientific knowledge is a kind of "a priori synthetic judgment", that is, about scientific knowledge.
The question of the meaning and composition of scientific knowledge is aimed at answering how to establish "scientific metaphysics".

First, the composition of scientific knowledge and its prerequisites.Kant pointed out that scientific knowledge is a combination of empirical data and a priori forms
made up of.The former is acquired and the latter is innate.He pointed out that all our knowledge begins with experience, because only

Only when objects stimulate our senses can we have perceptual experience, knowledge content and objects of understanding.However, Kang

De also pointed out that knowledge begins with experience does not mean that it comes from experience.Because source is a prerequisite problem of knowledge formation.through
Experimental materials are not yet knowledge, and knowledge must have the form of knowledge to constitute knowledge.There is no a priori form to transform, organize and synthesize the

knowledge is impossible without experimental data.Therefore, although knowledge begins with experience, it comes from innate human subjective

Cognitive ability.

Second, scientific knowledge is a kind of "innate synthetic judgment".Kant pointed out that all scientific knowledge is in the form of logical judgments

Now.And all judgments can be divided into "analytical judgment" and "synthetic judgment" according to the relationship between the subject and the predicate.

"Two kinds.

Kant believed that rationalism and economics
Empirical theory holds one end to the above two judgments, so it cannot explain the constitution of scientific knowledge.to overcome their one-sidedness

, Kant put forward the theory of "a priori synthetic judgment" and confirmed that all scientific knowledge is "a priori synthetic judgment".it a
On the one hand, it is comprehensive, that is, through experience, the predicate expands the content of the subject and provides new knowledge; on the other hand, this knowledge

and universal inevitability.Kant believes that all mathematical knowledge is a priori synthetic judgment, natural science knowledge and "metaphysical
"Science" (the theory about the ontology of the universe) is also an a priori comprehensive judgment.

"Transcendental Perceptual Theory" mainly clarifies the question of how pure mathematics is possible, but the purpose and focus is to explain the a priori time and space.
The temporal form is the prerequisite for the establishment of perceptual knowledge.

First, perceptual knowledge and the prerequisites for its formation.Kant's sensibility is also the form of perceptual intuition.Perceptual and intuitive form

It is the prerequisite and logical premise of perceptual knowledge.Kant concluded that this form is the space and time
between.Second, the description of space and time.That is, to explain the properties of space and time and their applications.Kant believed that from

In terms of nature, they are innate and do not contain the slightest empirical component, which is the so-called "metaphysical explanation".from application
From the point of view, they are universal and inevitable, which is the so-called "transcendental explanation".

Kant's "transcendental analysis" belongs to "transcendental logic", which is divided into "conceptual analysis" and "theoretical analysis".a priori

Logic is different from formal logic. Formal logic is analytical. It is only a priori analytical judgment. As long as such judgment does not violate the identity
The law, the law of contradiction and other rules can be established.It is concerned only with the form of thinking, not with the content.And his "transcendental logic" is a comprehensive
It is an a priori comprehensive judgment, which requires the cognition to be consistent with the object, and the form and content to be combined. "a priori

"Logic" regards intellectual form as the precondition for the establishment of content and experience objects, and without form there is no object.

Concepts should not be applied to cognition, judgments should not be applied to concepts, and messy empirical materials should not be synthesized and unified. Then, concepts and judgments

Breaking is pointless. Although the center of "transcendental analysis theory" says that scientific knowledge is the combination of perceptual and intellectual, material and form
product.However, Kant's emphasis is on showing that forms of knowledge are prerequisites for constituting scientific knowledge.He emphasized that knowledge is

The product of the combination of sexuality and intellectuality is the product of the processing and transformation of perceptual and intuitive materials by intellectual form, and the product of synthesis and unity.

The center of Kant's "Conceptual Analysis" is to clarify the source of pure concepts of understanding, and to explain the possibility of experience-knowledge.science

Since knowledge is the product of the combination of perceptual intuition and concepts, concepts must be analyzed.conceptual analysis, mainly

It is not the content of the analytic concept, but the ability to analyze the understanding itself.That is, to analyze the source, nature, and function of pure concepts of the understanding
performance and its use.In Kant's view, from the 12 judgments of formal logic, 12 categories can be deduced.That is, "one,

Quantity; individuality, diversity, totality.[-]. Quality; reality, negativity, limitation.[-]. Relation; Belonging and Reality

Existence (entity and accident), causation and dependence (cause and effect), reciprocity (interaction between activity and passivity).

[-]. State, possibility (possibility and impossibility), existence (existence and non-existence), necessity
Naturalness (necessity and chance). "

Kant believed that the traditional classification method of formal logic is the dichotomy, while the transcendental logic classifies the range according to the trichotomy.two points

The law only focuses on analysis, which can only produce the opposition of concepts, and cannot achieve the unity of opposites.The rule of thirds in transcendental logic focuses on

Synthesis, so as to achieve the unity of opposites in concepts.Since the materials of knowledge are disorderly things, to make them knowledge

, they must be integrated.This synthesis must rely on self-awareness to proceed.Self-awareness is a sense of disorganization
The root and prerequisite for the unification of sexual materials.Kant called the comprehensive and unified process of self-consciousness the three subjective aspects of knowledge.
source.That is: the synthesis of perception in intuition, the synthesis of reproduction in imagination, and the synthesis of cognition in concept.This is actually the solution
Solve the problem of consistency between cognition and object.This consistency is a process from directness to indirectness to conceptual unity, combining messy materials

Materials are synthesized through perception, imagination and concept to form a unified object.

"Concept Analysis" only explains the possibility of the combination of categories and intuitive objects, while "Principle Analysis" further explains how to

Make this possibility a reality.For this reason, Kant put forward the theory of "schema".the realization of transcendental categories and experience

A bridge that combines intuitive objects.Kant believed that the pure concepts of the understanding and the intuitions of experience are completely different things.

When different things are combined, there must be a third party, which is homogeneous with categories on the one hand, and is no different from phenomena on the other hand;
is inexperienced content, and at the same time must be intellectual to the one and sensual to the other.This appearance is a priori

Schema.

Kant's "schema" theory
It is necessary to explain how the pure concept of the understanding is combined with the object of intuition, so as to distinguish between the transcendental and the empirical, the abstract and the concrete, and the general and the concrete.
A bridge of connection is built between the individual, the intellectual and the sensual.After Kant explained the theory of "schema", he further put forward the relevant

The doctrine that pure concepts are combined with objects of intuition by means of their "schemas" to produce pure principles of the understanding.its main content
Are: axioms of intuition, predictions of perception, analogies of experience, and maxims of empirical thinking.So far, Kant believes that he has put

The theoretical discussion on how to understand the "phenomenal world" is over, and his final conclusion is that innate synthetic judgments are only related to experience, and only
Only experience can provide content and objects for form, but the noumenal world cannot provide experience objects, so we cannot make any a priori

Comprehensive judgment.For this reason, Kant discussed the distinction between noumenon and appearance in the last part of "Transcendental Analysis".Kant pointed out:

In empirical analysis, the principle of understanding has been explained, which is purely to explain the law of phenomena. The nature of understanding lies in the ability to use various judgments

The materials provided by form synthesis and connection intuition constitute knowledge.However, the ontology cannot provide perceptual and intuitive materials, so the intellectual and
Its pure concept cannot explain the ontology, and cannot be used for super experience.

"Transcendental Dialectics" is the second part of "Transcendental Logic", which is equivalent to reasoning in formal logic.In this part, Kant

Emphasize that these innate forms and categories can only be applied to "phenomena" but not to "ontology".Kant's conclusion is that man
The cognitive ability of students is limited, and speculative rationality is lower than practical rationality.

Immediately after the publication of "Critique of Pure Reason", there was an uproar, with enthusiastic approval and fierce criticism at the same time.its shadow

It was so loud that the ladies who couldn't understand this philosophical work at all put up a copy of "Critique of Pure Reason" in the boudoir embroidery building.
Judgment", as a fashionable decoration.Heine praised "Critique of Pure Reason" as a big knife to cut the head of deism, while at that time

The famous celebrity Mendelssohn denounced it as a heresy that "destroys everything".There are also some people who set up magazines to attack Kant.
.At the same time, the Vatican monks were so enraged by the fact that the materialistic elements in the book offended the Church that they
Name the watchdog "Kant" to vent his anger.

The Critique of Pure Reason is indeed an important philosophical work.For the first time in the history of European philosophy, this work puts epistemology

ontology and make it independent.Kant paid so much attention to theoretical thinking, he had a great influence on the future Hegel and even the whole German nation.

ethnic groups have had a profound impact.The book's dialectical and contradictory views on reason and itself, as well as three aspects of epistemology, dialectics and logic

Hegel's unanimous thought rudiment is of great significance to the further development of dialectics in German philosophy. Hegel's objective idealism
The thought of dialectics of doctrine was created on the basis of critically inheriting Kant's philosophy.

(End of this chapter)