politics

Chapter 13 Volume (B) II (5)
Some other experts, philosophers and politicians have proposed their own political systems (political systems), which are more realistic and close to the state’s system than the two political systems proposed by Plato (Socrates) current administration.Contrary to Plato and others, no other thinker mentioned novelty measures such as communal ownership of women and children or women's dinners. 35 They all burst out various ideas from the reality of life.Some people think that it is the inequality between the rich and the poor that leads to the frequent occurrence of disputes and even civil strife, so the most urgent task is to properly control property.Pharea of ​​Chalcedon The earliest Phalea of ​​Chalcedon (Φαλα χαλκηδóνιο) was slightly older than Plato. The "first" mentioned in this section proposed the method of abstaining property, referring to Plato's contemporaries .The life experience of Phaidon (Φεδον κορνθιοs) in 1265b12 in the last chapter was earlier than these two.

He advocated the method of controlling property to eliminate civil strife. Based on this idea, he suggested that citizens in a country should have the same property (such as fields of the same size). 40 In his view, this equal distribution of industry is not difficult to achieve when people start to colonize and establish a new colony. 1266b But for the old city-states that have existed for many years, there are relatively more difficulties.However, in this kind of city-state, if rich households use real estate as their daughter’s dowry, but do not accept dowry when they marry a daughter-in-law, and poor people only accept dowry without donating dowry, then it is possible to balance the various aspects of the entire city-state in a short period of time. The family's estate. 5 Plato in the "Laws" Plato's "Laws" 744E.It is mentioned in the article that there is no need to restrain any citizen’s initial property gain, and when his gain reaches about five times the minimum household income (as we mentioned above in 1265b21.), Faleati should be restricted The evenly distributed property referred to by Plato refers specifically to the land; while the increased property allowed by Plato refers to all the income and property of each family. .

It should not be neglected that legislators should not be neglected to fix the limits of property, but they are often forgotten in practice.If people had too many children, they would not have enough property to support them, and legislators were obliged to abandon laws based on the principle of equal property.When people have fallen from a well-to-do family to a situation where they cannot support themselves, committing crimes is no longer a big deal for the unfortunate ones, and they can easily jump over the wall and fall into the abyss of rebellion (revolution). 10 Even in antiquity, certain legislators were well aware of the role played by average property in political associations.For example, the legal system formulated by Solon in Athens and the laws passed down by other city-states all prohibited individuals from acquiring too much land at will.

同样，还有其他一些法规禁止人们出售财产，如洛克里城的禁令洛克里人（Locrians）共有三支：其一是居住在欧卑亚岸的奥布斯人（Opuntian）（《修昔底德》卷一108等均有记载）。其二是居住在马里海湾的克涅米（Cnemis on Maliac Gulf）山上的爱璧克涅米人（Epicnemidian）（《斯特累波》416、426页）。其三是居住在科林多海湾的奥查里人（Ozo－lian）（《修昔底德》卷一5、103）。本书1274a22中所列举的在南意大利随费里（Zephyrium）山上建洛克里城的人，被称为“爱璧随费里人”，其建立的城市是奥查里族的殖民城市。此节（卷二1266b19）和卷五1307a38所简称的“洛克里”也是指这个位于南意大利的殖民城市。卷三1287b8所举的奥布斯应当是位于欧卑亚对岸的洛克里城。

Brunschutz: Note on page 32 of "Inheritance and Income in Ancient Greece", in addition to explaining that the "Locris" mentioned here are the Abisui Felici family, it also states that the prohibition mentioned should come from Zalius Coase (Zαλευκó). ——The households in this state are not allowed to sell their property without conclusive evidence to prove that they have suffered unexpected heavy losses. 20 The purpose of some laws and regulations is to maintain the inheritance of each family and prevent the loss of political status.Take Leuka Island as an example, because this kind of law has been ignored, its political system has become too common (poor) and will eventually lead to insufficient assets, and the statutory amount of people will be elected as administrators .However, where such a property equalization system is implemented, the family quota may be too large or too small. Therefore, some people are struggling to make ends meet, 25 and some are living in luxury.Therefore, legislators should not only establish the principle of equalization of production, but also formulate an appropriate quota.Furthermore, even if all the people are included in the equal-income system, the world may not be perfect from now on.Compared with property, human desires need to be averaged, see Chapter 1263 24a23, b36, 1267, and this chapter 1b8-30. , the equalization of desires depends on effective education by law. [-] People's desires are endless, and education is the only way to control people's desires.

In this respect, however, Pharea could just happen to claim that this was what he meant, for he thought that property and education should be equal among the city-states.But we must also include an understanding of the nature of what he meant by education.If everyone is given the same curriculum, this is not a beneficial educational balance; under the same instruction, some people work hard on wisdom and virtue, and some are very enthusiastic about worldly affairs, 35 and develop the same disposition to pursue worldly affairs, 35 Some specialize in goods and profits, some compete for fame and position, and some are good at both, but what each person accepts and exerts is completely different from each other.In addition, the cause of disputes in social life or internal strife in city-states is not only the imbalance of wealth, but also the inequality of fame and honor.But fame and fortune have different manifestations: most of the people are noisy because of the injustice of wealth, while talented people hate the excessive "equality" in fame and status. See Volume 40, Chapter 1267.Aristotle believed that the distribution of names and positions should be adapted to their functions: those with high talents and honors should be at the top, and those with low talents and merits should be at the bottom.If fame and status are distributed equally between the wise and the foolish, the talented will surely be resentful. , 319 If they are insulted, or out of position, they will join the revolution because of dissatisfaction with honor, [-]ɑ There is a verse in Homer's "Iliad" ⅸ [-].Exactly this indignant temperament is expressed:

"There is no distinction between the good and the bad, and the wise and the foolish."

In addition to major issues like civil unrest, we also have to consider ordinary criminal offenses. (5) The root cause of some crimes is that the people lack food and clothing.In response to this situation, Falea proposed the remedy of equal property. Once the property is equally distributed, everyone can obtain the necessities of life. In this way, the theft caused by hunger and cold will naturally decrease or even disappear. . [-]([-]) However, lack of food and clothing is not the only reason for sin.People who have enough food and clothing may also be trapped by lust, so they seek pleasure to relieve their troubles, and finally violate the criminal law. ([-]) In society, there are not only those who fall into the net of punishment in order to solve the troubles of lust, but also some people who can enjoy the comfort of lust and the satisfaction of fame and fortune. Pursue infinite authority, and sin at last in wanton indulgence.

So, what are the ways to cure these three types of crimes?For the first category, we can give them appropriate means and occupations. 10 For the second category, we can cultivate the character of self-denial and courtesy.As for the third category, we think that all kinds of pleasures in the world depend on others, so people who seek pleasure are prone to commit crimes in the end. If a person can be self-sufficient and independent of the world, then let him Realize your wishes in the clear thinking of philosophy.The great evils of the world often spring from wantonness, not hunger.The reason why some people become tyrants (tyrants) is by no means because they suffer from lack of food and clothing.Therefore, the crime of tyrants is great, 15 so people do not value those who can catch the clothes thief, but give the honor to those who can kill the lord. 514 B.C. Gayton once jointly assassinated the tyrant Hibalgu, and both of them died in reproach later.The Athenians respected him as a generation of heroes.For this incident see volume five chapter ten 1311a35-39 (see note to this section).In this section, Aristotle involves the case of "killing the tyrant" because of the issue of equalization of property. His righteousness is slightly the same as that of Meng Ke in China. The cause of a hero cannot be regarded as a crime.Until the 16th century, there were many debates in ancient Europe on the issue of "killing the king" and "killing the only husband". .From this it follows that the general measures of the regime proposed by Pharea prevented only minor crimes.

There is still a bit of controversy about the Falea regime.The purpose of various arrangements in this political system is to achieve domestic tranquility and the normal life of the people. However, legislators should also pay attention to the relationship between the country and its neighbors and foreign countries, and arrange relevant external defense measures. Focus on foreign affairs and national defense issues, see 1265a17-30 of this volume; Chapter 20 and Chapter 25 of Volume VII.In addition, Chapter [-] of Volume [-] of "Rhetoric" also mentions that political commentators should be familiar with national power, be well prepared, and clarify foreign affairs, and then gain insight into the pros and cons of peace and war issues. .In forming a government,[-] the legislator must be mindful of arms, but Phareya does not speak of this at all.Indeed, property issues should also include consideration of wartime economic needs.When the country formulates the average amount of property of each family, it should take into account that the country's economic reserves can not only meet the political activities of every citizen in the country on weekdays, but also have surplus reserves to meet the occasional needs of the army when foreign enemies invade .The property quota should not be too small, otherwise, not to mention fighting against a powerful enemy, even if you only fight against an equal or similar city-state, [-] will be trapped in supplies; however, the quota should not be too large, because neighbors or powerful enemies are often easy to covet Those city-states rich in wealth but not strong enough to defend themselves.Phalaia gives no instruction in this regard, but we may still know that it is better to have as much property as possible, and it is always beneficial as long as it does not exceed a certain degree.

The quota standard should achieve such an effect: in the eyes of another stronger city-state, the total wealth of this city-state is not worth launching a war for the purpose of plundering, but when this city-state encounters an irresistible war, Even if the wealth is not much, it is enough to fight the enemy.There was such a story in ancient Persia: when Otto Platades of Persia led troops to besiege the city of Yaternai, Opilus, the city’s governor, asked the Persian general to calculate, from encircling the city-state to breaking the city-state. the time required, and the provisions his army would have to expend in the meantime.He said: "I can accept an amount less than the siege cost, and give the whole city of Yaternai to the general." This story confirms the estimation of each country's wealth, strength and poverty mentioned above. Be sure to match its armaments with its assets.Yaternai is located in the northwest corner of Asia Minor. Like Pergamon, it is an important town among the Greek colonial cities.Opilo (Εβουλο) once ruled Yasuo and Yaternai. In about 30 BC, Hermia (Eρμεαs) succeeded to the throne and became the tyrant.This story takes place before 35 BC.At that time, Otto Platadates was the Persian governor of Lydia, known for his wisdom and courage in Asia Minor (see Bowitz: "Index" 352b352).In 662 BC, Aristotle was a friend of Helmia on the island of Buju Yasuo, so he knew the story of Yaternai well.After hearing what he said, Otto Plata gave up the plan of besieging the city after a little thought.

An equal distribution of the property of all the citizens contributes to the tranquility of the country, but in this respect the benefits are not necessarily great.Talented people often feel that they deserve more than the average citizen, but they are limited, so they tend to complain about the system. 40 In fact, these people often stir up civil strife in a country because of their grievances.The evil of human beings stems from its endless greed. For example, in 1267b, an insatiable person was very satisfied with the two Oble allowances he had at the beginning. This should be the story of Athens' "theater allowance".According to Plutarch's "Pericles" (495?-429), the allowance for theater viewing originated in the era of Pericles, was canceled after the Peloponnesian War, and then resumed.According to Chapter 28 of Aristotle's "The Political System of Athens", after the death of Pericles, Athens' democratic politics began to become chaotic, and rough people competed to curry favor with the masses in order to cultivate power.Cleophon, leader of the populist faction, was the founder of the theatrical allowance, which granted citizens two oboles for admission to the theater, and a few years later the Callicrates increased to three Aubre.Both were later executed for wasting public property. Chapter 41 of "The Political System of Athens" also has a similar record on the allowance for attending the citizens' assembly (see Booker: "Athens City-State Economy" [Boeckh, Public Econof Athens] English translation page 216 below).

Oble (óβολó), small Greek silver coin worth eight "copper dollars" (χαλκο).In this book, Aristotle often does not list place names when referring to the historical events of Athens. This is an example. , and when he gets used to it, he will want more allowances.Human desires are originally endless, and many people spend their entire lives working in order to fill their own desires. 5 The equal distribution of property is ultimately no remedy for this vile evil.The only way is to teach everyone to take greed as a commandment, so that the noble people can be satisfied, and the lowly beings who have extravagant needs are not able to obtain bad income through misconduct.Of course, they should also accept the fair distribution of what they deserve, and don't let them have resentment.

In addition, Falea did not perfect the system of equalization of property. 10 He required that the average property be limited to land, and people could get rich from other human resources, including slaves, cattle and sheep, money, and other so-called movable properties.Therefore, all these properties must be equally distributed, or the maximum amount must be set, or all of them should be handed over to each family to gather and disperse freely.Apparently, the legal system that Falea originally created only for small cities was only applicable to a small number of civic groups. In developed small city-states, movable assets such as money do not occupy an important position, and the number of craftsmen is small, so Falea only pays attention to the equal distribution of land and agriculture. .

(End of this chapter)