politics

Chapter 21 Volume (Γ) Three (1)
In the first volume, Aristotle demonstrates that the city-state is a hierarchical combination of families and natural villages in terms of economic development, including men and women, elders and children, masters and servants, and practitioners of all walks of life, explaining the social structure of the city-state.Chapters 1-5 of this volume strictly explain "a city-state is a combination of many citizens" (1274b41) from the political aspect, and discuss the nature, qualifications, categories and morals of citizens. The theories in these five chapters are the basis of Aristotle's political theory.City-states of different natures are composed of citizens of different natures. Chapters 6-8 list the types of regimes, which later generations call "political morphology".Based on the qualifications, nature, and morality of citizens (citizenship conditions, that is, "obligations"), the principle of determining the distribution of civil political "rights" is discussed in chapters 9-13, and the last three chapters are actually Aristotle's first five chapters. based on the subject. Chapters 14-18 discuss the royal system and its types separately among the three authentic types of regimes.See volume [-] opening notes.

Chapter 30
To study the issue of "city-state regime" (πολιεαs, Polydia) and examine the practical significance and attributes of various regimes, we should first determine the essence of "city-state".Therefore, we must first clarify what is a 'city-state (πóλι, Pori).Now it is common to hear people discussing the nature of the city-state: some say it is a measure of the city-state;35 others say it is not the measure of the city-state but the measure of the oligarchs or tyrants.Moreover, all activities or actions of statesmen and legislators are obviously related to the city-state, and the political system is originally the system according to which the citizens of the city-state distribute political rights.Therefore, we must first determine the nature of the city-state before we can understand all political activities and political systems.

As a composition, a city-state is like a "whole" composed of many "parts". An organic combination; looking at the "city-state" from this perspective, it should be: "an organic independent system formed by many citizens joining in with different functions." , because the city-state is composed of several (many) citizens, 1041 so if we want to clarify the nature of the city-state, we must first study the nature of "citizens".Therefore, we should clarify what is a "citizen" (ποληs, Polyd "Poli" (πóλιs) refers to a fortress or acropolis in Homer's epic, as opposed to a "countryside" (δμο). Athens' hill guard The city "Acropolis" (κρóπολιs) is often referred to as "Poli" by the Athenians. The "urban area" around the fortress is called "Astor" (στυ).

Later generations collectively referred to the Acropolis, the countryside, and the urban area as a "Poli", which integrated the land, people and their political life, and contained the meaning of "state" or "country".Latin status, English state, German staat, and French état all stem from sto ("to stand"). When this verb becomes a noun, it means "form" or "stance".The root of the Latin word civitas comes from cio (“call”). When this verb becomes a noun, civis is “conscripted”, that is, “citizen-warrior”. Many warriors can only be assembled to form a fighting group or army.When these words are used as political terms, they mean modern states and have different origins from πóλιs.In the "Five Classics" and "Shuowen", Chinese interprets "Guo" as "a city in the suburbs", and "Bang" as "a state", which is similar to the etymology and meaning of "Poli"; but "Poli" The content is different from the "state" and "country" in the pre-Qin period and after the Qin-Han period in China.In modern times, it is more appropriate to translate citystate ("city-state") as "Poli" than the old translation of state as "state".

Several important terms are derived from Pori in this book: ([-]) πολη ("Polider"), which means a person who belongs to the city-state, that is, "citizen". ([-]) πολιεα ("polydia"): (a) the relationship between citizens and the city-state, (b) the "political life" of the whole state formed by this relationship, (c) The political system of the state, the "constitution", (d) sometimes refers only to the "government" of the state. ([-]) πολευμα ("Polydiya"): (A) "citizen group", (B) a narrower "official group", (C) sometimes has the same meaning as "Polydya", or for Regime or government.

There is also the adjective πολιικó derived from "Poli", which, as a noun, refers to "the person who governs the city-state", and now generally refers to the rulers of all countries, that is, "politicians".For πολιτικ, Aristotle originally referred to the theory and method of city-state politics, and now it has become a common "politics" for various state systems.

From the above examples, it can be generally seen that Western modern languages ​​and Chinese languages ​​have different contexts from Greek languages, and there is no political term of the same series with the same sound and meaning to translate the original text one by one. ), 1275ɑ and what a person can definitely be called a citizen.Like the question of the city-state, the nature of citizenship is often debated, and there is no accepted definition: people who can be called citizens in democracies are often excluded from the citizenship list in oligarchies.Here, we leave aside people who have acquired the title of citizenship by chance, such as naturalized citizens by dispensation (ποιηο πολαι), literally translated as "manufactured citizens".In the old system of Athens, aliens who were naturalized citizens were not allowed to be rulers or priests. In this way, according to the definition of citizens proposed below, naturalized citizens are not yet "full citizens".See Demosthenes, in Neaeram 92. , 5 A proper citizen should not be a native citizen by virtue of where he lives; aliens and slaves live in the same place as him, but they are not citizens.

People who only have the right to sue and apply for legal protection are not citizens; aliens also enjoy this legal right between city-states that have treaties and commercial agreements, the expatriates of the treaty countries can exchange currency, conclude contracts, obtain credit, and file lawsuits in the country of residence. .Although foreigners in many places still need a legal protector to apply for this legal right, they cannot fully exercise this legal right alone.These people are like children of Athens who have not reached the age of registration. At the age of 14, the children of Athens were registered in the "book kept by the president" by the Fangshe, and became citizens at the age of 18 ("Athens Regime" 42) (Gilbert : "Greek [Sparta and Athens] Political Canon", Gilbert, Grstaatsalt, Vol.Like the elderly who have passed the age of exemption from service, 170 only have legal rights or incomplete legal rights, and are not qualified to become a citizen.

It is certainly possible to treat the old and the young as citizens in the name of partial names, but they are not full-name citizens after all, or children are immature citizens, or old people are over-age citizens. It doesn’t matter how they are called. Some reserved words. 15 The citizens we are going to describe should be citizens in the strict and full sense, without any defects that need to be repaired-such as those who are under or over a certain age, or who have been deprived of citizenship or expelled from the state. These people have similar problems, although All may be citizens or have been citizens, but their current status does not qualify for citizenship.It is better to define citizens according to this standard, and the full name of citizens is "all people who can participate in judicial affairs and governing institutions." In this way, the above-mentioned shortcomings are eliminated.Offices in the governing body can be divided into two categories according to their tenure.The first category is limited, and the same person cannot hold this position continuously, or can only hold this position after a certain period of time.

The other category has no time limit, such as the judges of the public courts (jurors) The judge is equivalent to the current "juror". The judge in the public court is the "presiding judge" or "the chairman of the trial". Plato: "Laws" 767A said that according to strict interpretation, jurors are not officials, but in his position On that day, during the voting hours, he was indeed a ruler.) and a member of the Citizens' Assembly.Of course, one could argue that judges and members are not officials of the governing body, because they do not participate in ruling.But the public court and the citizens' assembly actually represent the highest power of the city-state.institutions, it would be absurd if those who participated in them had no governing power.We believe that this kind of argument that only seeks loopholes in the text is not to be taken seriously.All that is missing here is a common name for both judges and members.In order to pursue the clarity of the matter, let us call the two "unfixed (unfixed) duties", so that we can refer to the public as "people who participate in these duties".

For all those who are called citizens,35 this definition defines precisely their political status in a broad sense.But there are still doubts here, what is the nature of the concept of citizenship, which includes different meanings of the bottom layer "bottom" (ποκεμενα) According to Bonitz: "Index" 798b59, 799a15, the bottom layer that citizens rely on actually refers to the city-state. Various "regime". For the explanation of "bottom layer", please refer to section 1028b36 of "Xing Shang", and for "Different Varieties", see 1018a38. , followed by first class, second class and other classes.When we examine the relationship of the bottom layer, we will find that there is no common bottom layer, or there is only a meager common bottom layer.The different sublevels of citizenship are different regimes. Obviously, there are different types of regimes, some of which are prior to 1275b, and others are later. . , any erroneous or perverted regime must be inferior to an error-free polity. We will explain the true meaning of the so-called perverted regime later. For details, see 1279a19 below. .Corresponding to different regimes (bottoms), citizens must be different.Thus, 5 our above definition of citizenship is best suited to democracies, and may, but not necessarily fits perfectly, fit citizens in other regimes as well.

For example, some city-states do not recognize the political status of civilians, and there is no formal citizen assembly, only specially called irregular mass gatherings. System, there are "citizens' assemblies called from time to time" (πκλητοι).Such examples are rarely found in Greek antiquities.During the period when the 640 people were in power, the 400-person citizen assembly in Athens was also held from time to time, but it was not customized. , Litigation cases are handed over to the personnel of various administrative departments for handling.At Lacedaemon, for example, the Ombudsman dealt with cases concerning disputes over contracts—they assigned these cases among the Ombudsmen to deal with the judicial powers of the Spartan Ombudsman, Plutarch: Lagenica This is also mentioned by Eurycratidas in the Proverbs. , the elders of the House of Elders are responsible for the trial of murder cases, 5000 its officials are responsible for the trial of other cases.The judicial system of Carthage is also similar, where a number of full-time officials have the authority to hear all cases cf. Juan II Chapter XI 10a1273. .But we can, with some modification, retain the above view of the citizens of these regimes.In non-civilian polities, those who hold deliberative (legislative) and judicial (judicial) duties are not those who are indefinitely non-professional, but limited and full-time, and all or some of these people have regular powers of deliberation and judgment, 19 whether they deliberate or decide upon some cases or all cases.

上述这些分析，已经阐明公民的普遍性质，我们在这里可以下这样的结论：（一）凡有权参加议事和审判统治机构设有议事、司法和行政三类职司，参看卷四章十四1297b4－1298a3；此节和下章1276a4只叙述议事和审判职司，不涉及行政职司，可参看本卷章十一1281b30—34。的人，我们就可说他是那一城邦的公民；（二）城邦的一般含义就是人数维持自给生活参看卷一章二1052b28。而具有的一个公民集团。20
Chapter Two
By convention, a citizen is a son born to both parents who are citizens. Only the father or mother is a citizen, and their children cannot be called citizens.Sometimes, this condition has to go back even further, even to the ancestors of the second, third or more generations. In Article 1278 30a371, both parents are citizens, and their children are "authentic citizens".The conditions of citizenship in Athens are sometimes strict and sometimes loose, depending on the political situation and population increase or decrease, see this chapter.In addition, the qualifications of the governing and priests of Athens have stipulated that three generations and two lines must be citizens of Athens (Dietenberg: "Greek Epistles" No. 1540. "Aristotle Fragments" 39 118a149; see Hull Man: "Greek Stories" Volume [-] [-], [-], etc.).

The original regulations of the city of Byzantium stipulated that only those whose parents are both citizens can enjoy citizenship. However, when the city-state was in financial difficulties, it was once allowed for men from only one line to become citizens after paying 30 minas (Aristotle’s pseudonym : "Economics" Volume II 1349b26-29). . 25 This is indeed a popular and simple definition, but some people will ask this question: How did the ancestors of the last three or four generations become citizens?Gorgias of Leondine mocked Gorgias (Γoργαs) for this, see Plato's dialogues "Phaedrus", "Mano", etc., also found in Aristotle: "Rhetoric" Volume 1408 Chapter VII 19b[-], he is a famous rhetorician who is good at sarcasm and is known for it.The ancient Greeks respected ancestors and traditions. Many cities paid special respect to the early residents but despised foreigners or later clans.It is said that Gorgias was belittled in Larissa at the time because of his non-citizen alien status.

(End of this chapter)