politics

Chapter 33 Volume (Δ) Four (1)
After the six types of regimes are listed in Book III, the last chapters have devoted to monarchy and dealt with aristocratic regimes.If volumes 1289, 11, and 25 succeed volume [-], the other four types of regimes should be described in detail.Book IV of the extant manuscripts, in addition to explaining commoners, oligarchs, republics, and tyranny, also mentions many varieties of aristocracy; Book V also describes many varieties of monarchy.The basis for the classification of regimes in each chapter is not limited to the two principles mentioned in Book Three: ([-]) the number of people in power, and ([-]) whether it is for the benefit of the whole people or a few.The writing procedure of volumes [-] to [-] generally conforms to the program of [-]b[-]-[-] in chapter [-] of volume [-]; it is often seen that there are some connections with the first three volumes, but in fact they are not consistent.

The first three volumes focus on theory; these three volumes focus on application, and the contents are all based on historical facts to make concise conclusions, and no longer use the method of "assuming doubts" to analyze repeatedly.Judging from the large amount of historical facts described in these three volumes, it is true that only those who have collected and edited 150 and eight city-state regimes would be so knowledgeable and defy the contract.Based on historical facts, Aristotle discussed the types and essentials of various regimes, and often noted how to create and maintain various regimes for a long time.In terms of maintaining an established regime, he not only mentioned monarchy and republic, but also provided advice on abnormal regimes such as extreme democracy, extreme oligarchy, and tyranny, which he never paid attention to.These can be regarded as reference materials for actual politicians, so Newman called it the Greek "Politician's Handbook" ("Newman's Annotated Book" Volume 485) "Introduction to "Politics" pp. 494-[-], Volume [-]" Preface" p. viii "Various regimes involved in Aristotelian politics").

The school books of St Hilaire B, Congreve, Newman, etc. all place volumes seven and eight before volumes four, five, and six.Newman believes that Aristotle first wrote volumes 150, 1956, and 235; after a period of time, he wrote volumes 6 and 1885; volumes [-], [-], and [-] were late drafts after [-] and eight city-state regimes had been edited.This Chinese translation still maintains the traditional ordering of the original manuscript (see Ross: "Aristotle" WDRoss, "Aristotle", fifth edition, [-] printed edition, pp. [-]-[-]; Zhou Yite's English translation ([-]) volume [-] Preface, p. v; Buckle's English translation, "Introduction", pp. xxxvii-xli).

Chapter 10
If, whether in art or in science as practical science, it is not content merely with fragmentary statements but with an interest in the study of the whole problem, then the study of every particular art and scholarship, and especially of the one in which it is adept, is All circumstances in all of these areas should be taken into account.

For example, the art of sports has to consider the following issues: first, what kind of different coaching methods should be used for people with different physiques; second, what is the most ideal coaching method15 (the so-called ideal method is to have The best coaching method that people with the best physique and the most superior living conditions should use), and what is the coaching method that is generally suitable for most people And give consideration); Finally, it must be taken into account that some people are willing to receive sports training, but do not want to achieve the high level of skill that can participate in sports competitions, and adult sports coaches and juvenile athletics coaches. Coach; of the two coaches enumerated here by Aristotle, the former refers specifically to "adult" coaches.According to Plato: "Gorgias" (Gorgias) 451E, 452B, 456E and other sections, "Youth Physical Education Teacher" teaches teenagers to perform physical activities to develop children's posture and physical strength, and at the same time teaches children to perform various sports and wrestling exercises .Aristotle paid attention to children's physical education and physical fitness, so as to make them suitable for various political and social activities of future citizens, but did not focus on sports competition.See Volume 1338, 7b20 of this volume.And for the very different groups of people they teach, they have to set up some lower courses that are suitable for them.What is said here in the case of sports coaching,[-] applies to every other art, such as medicine, car-building, or sewing.

Since the study of politics (system of government) is one of various practical studies, it is obvious that it should also strive for perfection: first, what should be considered is the best system of government; if the influence of external factors is not considered, then the best system of government Which qualities should be acquired and developed.Second, the variety of regimes appropriate to different kinds of citizen groups should be considered.The best political system cannot be achieved by the existing general city-states. Excellent jurists and outstanding politicians should not only conceive and demand an absolutely perfect political system, but also seek to match the city-state according to the actual conditions of the state. The most well-adapted regime.Again, it is time to consider which form of government would be most expedient in some hypothetical cases, and to inquire how it might be created, and how, when constituted, it might be sustained for a long time.Here, we take the city-state that can only implement a lower form of government as a hypothetical situation. This kind of city-state does not have the ideal ideal form of government at present, because even the minimum conditions for a good form of government are lacking there, so there is no It is possible to implement a better form of government than other existing city-states can implement.

At this point we have to design a lower level political system for it.Finally, it is necessary to know the general form which is most suitable for the general city-state.Although most scholars in political science have brilliant ideas in theory, when their theories are applied in practice, they often make many mistakes.We need to study not only the ideal model regime, but also the possible regime, and from this we should also consider what kind of regime is most suitable for general city-states and easy to construct.The political theorists in the world can be roughly divided into two categories: one group pursues the most lofty and ideal political system, which must have sufficient and superior natural conditions as the basis.The other type of people, although advocating the actual real political system, are always dissatisfied with the political system of their own 35α state, and often flaunt Ragenni, see Volume 40 1289b1265. (Sparta) or the good laws of other city-states.

A good proposal for the regime must be based on the inherent contemporary system and add some changes that everyone is willing to accept and easy to implement. Plato: "Utopia" 501A, advises legislators to first publish The old legal system was wiped clean before writing; and, from chapters 296A of "The Statesman" and 684 of "The Law", he did not respect real politics. .Improving an old regime is as difficult as creating a new one, just as difficult as getting a page of old lessons to be unlearned is as hard as having people recite a page of new ones.Therefore the practical statesman cannot confine himself to the above-mentioned range, he should refer to 5b1288-29 above as we have explained in advance. , to aid and improve or remedy any existing regime.He must therefore be well acquainted with the different types of regimes, without which he cannot be of any use in practical politics.We have seen some who think that there is only one kind of commonwealth and oligarchy,33 which is wrong.We should not make this kind of mistake. We should keep in mind how many types of government there are, know what each type of government is, and how each type of government is composed. For example, how many types of civilian government are there? —10. .

The political scientist with these considerations should also know and be able to distinguish what is the best ideal law and what is suitable for each type of government; laws are (and should be) made according to the government (constitution), so they cannot Let the regime adapt to the law.The regime can be said to be the functional organization of a city-state, which is used to determine the supreme governing body and the arrangement of political power, and also to realize the goals that the city-state and all its members hope to achieve. .Laws, unlike constitutions, are regulations by which those in power exercise their powers, and by which they monitor and punish all those who break the law.From this it can be seen that any political scholar who wishes to make laws suitable for various forms of government (or to modify the existing laws for cities of different forms of government) must first understand the various types of forms of government and their total number.If we have realized that there are many plebiscites and oligarchys, not just one kind, we shall also see that the same laws cannot apply to all plebeians and oligarchys. 15
Chapter Two
We are in the "Preliminary Compilation of Research on Regime" "Preliminary Compilation of Research on Regime"

(πρ μεθóδ περ ν ολιειν), should refer to volumes two and three; the following is consistent with the classification of the political system in chapter seven of volume three.In this way, it seems that volumes four to six are "the second part of the study of regimes".However, the second volume describes the ideal government system proposed by the predecessors, and the following part should be the ideal government system formulated by Aristotle himself, which is why some editors moved volume seven and volume eight after volume three; This adaptation raises other difficulties (see notes at the end of Book III and at the beginning of Book IV).

According to the previous chapter 1288b21-37, this chapter should begin to discuss the four political research programs in sequence.But this chapter sets another research project because of the classification of regimes. "New School" I493 note 2, said "the first to fourth chapters of this volume are quite confusing".Whether this confusion was caused by alteration or addition by later generations is still inconclusive. , has distinguished three orthodox types of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and republic, and their corresponding three perverted types: tyranny (a perverted form of monarchy), oligarchy (a perverted form of nobility ), civilian government (a perverted form of republic) 1.Aristocracy and monarchy have already been discussed in Volume Three, Chapters Fourteen-Eighteen. .The study of the so-called best regimes is actually the study of the two forms of regimes: aristocracy and monarchy. Here, the two regimes of "nobility" and "monarchy" are the best regimes, which is consistent with the thesis of Chapter 4, Section 30a1288 of Volume Three.

Volume VII Chapter Fourteen 1332bl6-27 said that the monarchy is no longer in line with reality and should be dismissed.If Volume 1289 is moved after Volumes 3 and 1332, the sentence 16a27 is in conflict with sentences 35b1279-33. There are more inconsistencies in the chapters of Politics than in any other work of Aristotle. ; These two forms of government, like the ideal form of government, need to have the necessary conditions for realization, and the purpose is to establish social goodness.We have also explained the difference between the aristocratic government and the monarchy39 before, and explained when and where the monarchy should establish the difference between the two types of government. , Chapter 1286, 2a7-1288; when the kingship can be established, see 8a15-1288. .Therefore, the only remaining topics are: (15) In terms of the orthodox regime, it was originally a general term for various constitutional governments, but it is also used as a specific term for a regime, that is, the so-called "republican regime"; Government, Commonwealth and Tyranny.

40 If we pay attention to the order of goodness and virtue in the authentic regime, we can see which of the perverted regimes is worse and which is the worst.The perversion of the best and almost divine type of government must be the worst 1289b.Either the monarchy is in name but no substance, or the king is of extraordinary virtue.Therefore, tyranny is the worst form of government, which is the opposite of the authentic government (monarchy), and is at the extreme distance from it; The most tolerable perverted regime of all.An advanced scholar once made a distinction between Plato's 5 pairs of regimes: "The Statesman" 302E, 303A. , but he applies a different principle in making the distinction.

According to his principle, all regimes can be distinguished from good to bad: in oligarchy, for example, there is a distinction between good and bad.From this, the good seed of popular government should be included among the good ones, as the worst of them, and its bad seed among the bad ones, as the best of them; and Either of these forms of government should, in my opinion, be classed as bad.Here we cannot say that there are good or bad oligopolies, but that one type is worse than the other. Plato’s classification of regimes criticized here, according to the existing dialogues, Plato once referred to majority regimes as “republics” " and "popular (poor) regimes" (The Statesman, 10A), and the minorities as "nobility" and "oligarchy" respectively (The Statesman, 303A), Asia Aristotle's taxonomic names are practically the same.We do not now find a passage in which Plato designates aristocracy as the "better oligarchy". .

But we need not talk too much about the evaluation of the quality of the regime.Here, the procedure we are working on should be stated immediately.Since there are more than one species of civilian government and oligarchy, we need to pay attention to the following points: First, see Chapters 15 to 1296 of this volume.The varieties of each type of government must be sorted out and enumerated.Second, chapter eleven of this volume.It should be examined which regime (let alone the ideal)38 is the most popular and the easiest to enforce.We should also examine whether there are other better, ideal and better organized regimes that can also be adopted by most city-states.Third, chapter twelve of this volume.According to the chapter [-]b[-], the other form of government mentioned here should be a republic.Among the other types of regimes, we should examine which kind of citizen group should apply to which type of regime.For example, a certain group of citizens would prefer an oligarchy to a plebeian government, while another group of citizens thinks that a plebeian government is more suitable than an oligarchy.Fourth, this chapter fourteen to sixteen, and volume six chapters one to seven.

It should also be considered how, if one were to build various 20 regimes, such as the various types of plebeian and oligarchic regimes, how one would proceed to construct them effectively.Fifth, volume five. , and after the above-mentioned problems have been briefly explained, we should try our best to study the last question: how the individual regimes are destroyed, and how the general regimes are destroyed; how can these regimes be preserved, and what are the reasons for their destruction and preservation. The political research items in this paper are different from the four items listed in Chapter 25: (1) (1) of the items in Chapter 2, the ideal political system, has already been discussed in this chapter, and there is no need to talk about it hereafter. (3) The order of other items has also been changed: (4) (1289) listed in Chapter 7 is listed as the third in this chapter; (9) ([-]) listed in Chapter [-] is listed as the fourth and fifth in this chapter; ( [-]) Chapter [-]-([-]) is in line with the second item listed in this chapter; ([-]) Chapter [-] [-]a[-]-[-], which involves topics other than the [-] items, this chapter is listed as the first.The five items mentioned in this chapter are all involved in the four, five, and six volumes, but the order and level of detail are not completely consistent with the research program here. .

Chapter three
(End of this chapter)