politics

Chapter 35 Volume (Δ) Four (3)
10 Regarding this issue, we can refer to Plato's book "The Republic" Plato: "The Republic" Volume II 369B-371E. , although in that work, Plato said it very cleverly, but it is not complete.Socrates first explained that weavers, farmers, shoemakers and construction workers are the four most needed parts of a country; then, when it was found that these people could not make a city-state self-sufficient, he gradually increased the number of smelters and raised those workers. The shepherds of the necessary livestock15, the merchants, and the hawkers constituted the rest of the city-state.These people combined to complete the first city-state he described - such a city-state seems to seek only economic supply rather than goodness as the purpose of social life. It is as important to see as it is to be a farmer.Only when the territory of this city-state gradually expanded in the future, and it was in contact with the soil of its neighbors and a war broke out, did he introduce the warriors as a defensive force.For the four original parts (or several parts) that make up the political group, there must always be someone who is responsible for deliberating and adjudicating the rights and wrongs between them.

If the soul as part of an animal is more important than the body, then any part related to the spirit of the city-state should be more important than the part that supplies the material needs of the city-state; the so-called parts similar to the animal soul refer to those parts of the city-state25 Military (combat) functions, impartial judicial functions, and politically rational deliberative functions.Whether these three functions are performed by the same group of people is immaterial to our present argument.It is not uncommon to see the same man plowing the fields and fighting with a shield on the battlefield.Of course, there are often people who perform all three functions.If it is said that those who perform these functions should be regarded as one of the indispensable parts of the city-state as well as those who supply the city-state's material needs, then they should also be included here, at least military personnel should also be included. Personnel "heavily armed (armored and shielded) troops" (ò πλιιρóν ) can be translated as "military personnel" relative to administrative personnel, and can be translated as "samurai class" relative to the agricultural and working class.Greek heavy infantry are all citizens, and auxiliary arms do not necessarily have to be recruited from citizenship.Most of the sailors in the navy are recruited from mercenaries or slaves, and the combat soldiers on the ship are usually included in the infantry team.Included therein as part five.

The sixth part is missing from the above part of the seventh part, and the manuscript should be "missing".Or think that line 22 has already been mentioned, and the part of judicial judgment repeated in line 39 is the sixth part.The wealthy class is an indispensable part of the city-state, see Dio Chrysostom: "Speeches", No. 38, 130, edited by Resk.Wealthy people who finance society with their property.The eighth part is administrative personnel who serve the society (hold public office) with their own talents.Without a government (governor), it cannot be called a city-state; this requires talented people to serve in various official positions for life or in rotation to serve the city-state.The remaining parts, then, are only those two which have been mentioned in passing above—the procedural part, and the judicial part, which decides the merits of the litigants.

These two parts should be necessary for every city-state; good political morality must be possessed by both the deliberative and judicial personnel, and each state needs to establish a good and appropriate appointment system. 40b We can illustrate a difficulty here.It is not uncommon to see the same group of people possessing several different abilities of other parts.For example, the same people can be soldiers, farmers, and craftsmen; and these same people can participate in council affairs and participate in jury courts and judicial reviews at the same time.All had some political talents; each thought himself adequate for most functions.But there is one thing that cannot be done: People who belong to the same group cannot be rich and poor at the same time.Therefore, as an integral part of the city-state, the two classes of rich and poor have no meaning.One of the two has a small number of people, while the other has a large number of people, and they are exactly two parts that oppose each other.Therefore, they each rely on their own advantages to organize a regime that is beneficial to their part.This is why people think that there are only two forms of government: the common people and the oligarchs.

对政体应有多种的情况以及它之所以分化的原因，我们已经有所说明。现在我们可以进一步说明各政体中的平15民政体以及寡头政体这两个类型，从之前已经说过的情况来看，它们显然也分化成若干变异的品种14～30行这节起句和本章1290b21一样，已经见上注；全节内容，以平民以及贵要阶级为基本区别而分述二者的各个组合部分，和章三1289b27—1290a2的分析要领略同；有些校本将章三1289b27—1291b13加上删除括弧〈〉。这两章中对城邦组成部分的分析有些分歧之处，可以参看《纽校》I“附录 A”565—569页。本章1291b30到章六1293a34论述平民政体和寡头政体之时，并没有认真应用章三章四那些城邦组成部分的各个行业来作分析。。这些政体之所以发生变异是因为平民（贫民）以及著名人物（贵要阶级）的组成成分的变异。

As far as the common people are concerned, some of them are engaged in farming; the second are engaged in crafts and manufactures; the third are merchants engaged in buying and selling; Some were engaged in business overseas,20 others were engaged in seafaring activities, and some made their living from fishing.We may notice that among the various trades here distinguished, in many places a certain trade is often extremely prosperous and alone in numbers, such as the fishermen of Tarentum and Byzantium, the sailors on the ships of Athens, Aegean and The sea merchants on the island of Qiwo and the sailors on the island of Denedus Byzantium have been famous in the Mediterranean for their tuna fishing since ancient times, see page 320 of Strabo.The islands of Aegina and Qiwo are both rocky and difficult to cultivate, and there is little fish in the sea. Most of the residents are traders ("Strebo" p. 376).Xenophon: "History of Greece" Volume 23, Chapter [-], [-] once involved the difference between "boat operators" (ò πορθμευικòν) and "fishing operators" (ò λενικóν).The situation of the ancient voyages in the Aegean Sea has not been verified in detail.The island of Denedus (ενδοs) is located outside the mouth of Spong (now Tatar Neil Strait) in Greece, which is particularly conducive to shipping, and can be used as a hub for business travel between Asia and Europe or between islands and continents in the Aegean Sea.

Athens has long dominated the navy and navigation industry, see Note 1274a13 of Volume II. , these can all be cited as such examples.The fifth part is the "labor" (ò κερνηικóν) of unskilled laborers (mercenaries) who rely on their hands for a living, see volume 1277 38a1291.Here it refers specifically to lowly labor, which is the same as the "hired worker" or "farmer hired" in 5a25 (ò θεικóν). , and those who have no savings, earn a living by working every day, and cannot live a leisurely life all year round; the sixth part is that not all parents are descendants of citizens.Of course there may be other components of similar nature.Famous people (nobility) were divided into sections (streams) by wealth, birth (menwang), talent, culture, and similar various criteria.

The first breed of common government is that which most strictly observes the principle of equality.In this kind of city-state, the so-called equality stipulated by the law means that the poor do not take advantage of the rich: the two have the same status in the city-state, and neither is the master of the other. See Volume VI, Chapter 30, 1318a5-10. .There are thinkers who hold that liberty and equality are especially valued in common government,35 and if we think what they conceive is right, then everyone should be allowed to participate as much as possible and political rights should be distributed.Since the common people always make up the majority, then all political affairs are determined by the will of the majority to establish the governing power of the city-state, and a common people's government will inevitably be established.Another type of civilian government uses property as the basis to determine eligibility for public office,40 but the amount of property required is very low; as long as it can reach this amount, it is eligible to hold office,1292α Those who do not reach this amount are not allowed to hold public office.The third is that citizens of unimpeachable origin (ethnicity) can hold public office, and their governance is based entirely on the basis of law.The fourth is that no matter whether the parents are free citizens or not, as long as they are citizens, everyone can hold public office, but the governance method is still based entirely on the law.

A fifth kind of civil government is similar to the above-mentioned one, in which all citizens are eligible for public office, but the final judgment of their political affairs is determined by the people and not by the law. Announced "orders" can replace "laws" and "orders" can replace or exceed "laws". The fifth type of civil government is exactly opposite to the first to fourth types based on laws.The Athenian democratic tradition attaches great importance to laws and conventions, see Note 5b1282 of Volume III.Taking law as "general principles" and "orders" as "individual cases", see 6a1292, 33 below. .This happens in city-state politics by Demolog ("popular leader") "Demolog" (δημαγωγós), the original meaning refers to "popular leader", this kind of person is often the "orator" in the citizens' assembly ", the old Chinese translation is "traitor" or "popular agitator".Volume 37 of this book, 1274a14, refers to the common people leader as "vulgar", volume 1304, 26b21, also called it "bad", and Aristotle called Demorogus "the courtier of the people". "Thucydides" iv [-], calling Clion "the leader of the masses", is also malicious.

In addition, as in Isocrates: "De Antidosis" (De Antidosis) 234, calling "Demoruga" Pericles is out of respect.Astor: There is no such word in "Plato's Works Vocabulary" (Ast: Lexicon Pla-tonieum).Plato refers to the leaders of the populace as "advanced" ("Republic" viii565B).The advanced leaders of the people all come from the family of the Fangshe, or are generals, or are appointed to govern, and bear the heavy responsibility of the city-state, so they make decisions and make decisions after careful consideration.Later, the business and commerce of Athens and other cities gradually prospered, and the intelligent people in the cities used their eloquence to influence the intentions of the common people (poors) in the citizens' assembly and became celebrities for a while, and they were called "Demoruga"; Military and political responsibilities are often favored by the people and their rhetoric is used, resulting in adverse effects.By the time of Aristotle, the name had been despised by the world, and orators were taboo to use it.caused by.In a civil government based on the law, the people who preside over public discussions are relatively noble citizens, so "demoruga" will not be produced.Demorog was born only in city-states where the law was not the highest authority.

Here the people became a collective sovereign; formerly a mere ten or so ordinary citizens, now united into one body and held the power, respected throughout the state.Homer's poem said Homer: "Iliad" ii10: "How can good government come from many schools, and one king would rather rule.", "How can good government come from many schools (lords)", what he called "Multiple" means that the majority of the people collectively issue orders or that a few people govern independently, we cannot be sure here.However, since such common people do not rely on "law" as their basis for governing, they contain the nature of an autocratic monarch.In this way, it will gradually become autocratic, and the courtiers will definitely gain the favor of the monarch and become a momentary power. The masses are the tyrants, and the courtiers are used as a metaphor for "popular leaders". See Aristophanes: "The Knight" 204, 15. .This plebeian form of government in a majority system is similar to the tyrant form of a monopoly (monarchy).The sentiments of the two are the same. They both impose tyranny1111 on the nobler citizens of the country. The "commands" of the common people are like the "edicts" of the tyrants. A vassal of a tyrant; in this common government, as in a tyranny, the government actually falls into the hands of a vassal favored by the prince.

The "popular leaders" bring everything to the civic assembly, so that it is the resolution of the masses that issues orders instead of the authority of the law.Once the masses represent the governing power, they also represent the will of the masses; since the masses have been manipulated by them, they have gained the position of controlling the state affairs.And those who criticize and accuse the government also have something to do with creating this regime.They demanded "the judgment of the people"; and the people at once accepted those demands, and the authority was thus discredited.Such a civilian regime cannot but be criticized by others, and in fact it cannot be regarded as a regime. 25 A city-state which cannot maintain the authority of its laws cannot be said to have established any form of government.The law should be respected in all aspects and maintain the supreme authority, and the executives and civil groups should only make choices in "individual" cases that the law (general principles) cannot reach, neither of which should violate the law.As a type of polity among various polities, this "special" system, in which everything is based on orders, clearly makes it not like a polity. No form of government is in keeping with it.Commands can never be generalized ("universal") cf. Niron V 30b35.Any real polity must have as its foundation the general principles, the laws.

These are the varieties and definitions of what are called plebiscites.

Chapter five
There are also several different types of oligarchy: the first type, the property qualifications necessary for holding 40 public offices are quite high, and people whose property reaches this amount can share political rights 1320 is consistent with Chapter VII 22a28-1321. In 26a28, there are other conditions besides property qualifications for the person in charge, so there is a "but..." clause here, indicating that there are no restrictions other than property qualifications. , the poor, although they belonged to the majority group, were all excluded.The second type has high property qualifications and the selection of public office fill-ups is limited to those with legal qualifications.Wherever vacancies are filled from among all qualified persons, it shows a tendency towards aristocracy; if limited to those with some particular qualifications, it shows a tendency toward oligarchy.The third is the hereditary system of inheritance from father to son.

(End of this chapter)