politics

Chapter 40 Volume (Δ) Four (8)
The first arrangement: all matters (cases) are considered and adjudicated by all citizens, which is characteristic of populism.For civilians, they would like to have such equal opportunities.There are several ways to achieve this.First, all citizens can take turns when discussing affairs instead of gathering at the same time.Telecris of Miletus The legislator Telecris (Tηλεκλs) is only mentioned in this book and is not recorded in other ancient Greek books, so his life cannot be tested.There is such a system of deliberation in the constitution (regime).Some city-states practiced a system that was a variant of this system. For example, in these city-states, 15 different functions of government agencies united. In the epitaphs (Dittenberg: "Greek Epistles" 132, 134), the era of its existence is all after the death of Alexander; also seen in Park Rubo: "Historical Records" (iv 42, xxxviii 114), also in the late period .The city-states before Aristotle’s lifetime already had such cabinet organizers in parliamentary politics, but it is not easy to find out now.

Edited by Meinac: "Compilation of Fragments of Greek Comedy" iv 625, which proves that Miletus did have such an organization after Telecris.Get up to discuss matters together. According to different tribes and according to the smallest division, the citizens presume that the personnel will take turns to participate in the government affairs organization until all the personnel have taken turns for a week. The administrative personnel of the institution are served by citizens of various tribes and divisional units in turn. Therefore, after a certain period, all citizens have the opportunity to become deliberative and administrative personnel. .This system, in which all citizens take turns discussing affairs in batches, is aimed at enacting laws, discussing matters related to the political system, and listening to reports from administrative staff. 20 Second, all citizens gather together at the same time, and the matters discussed are the selection and review of executives, passing laws, and discussing major issues related to peace and war.Cases concerning the death penalty, banishment, confiscation, etc., were considered by the relevant executives; these administrators could be appointed by election or lottery, and all citizens had the opportunity to occupy this position.

Thirdly, the selection of powers and the review of foreign policy, such as wars, alliances, etc.,25 these are the two major matters specially deliberated by assemblies of citizens, while other matters are dealt with by individual administrators who have experience and knowledge of the business they deal with, and Their appointments are also as open as possible, so that the public has the opportunity to be appointed. The administrators are selected by "drawing lots" or "casting lots". Therefore, all citizens, as long as they are those who participate in the lottery, everyone has an equal opportunity.By "election" to choose, those who are more talented or famous can get a greater chance of being appointed.Populism is characterized by lottery (cf. Vol. VI 1317b21).Taking Athens as an example, except for generals and other important positions, the common method of appointment for other positions is to take turns by drawing lots.However, everyone must pass a "test" before being appointed, must take a "vote of confidence" during their tenure, and must pass a "performance review" during their tenure.Therefore, the administrative personnel in Athens must also be actually appointed by those with talents and assets.See Vinogradov: "The Jurisprudence of Ages" Volume II pp. 140-142. .Fourth, all citizens gather to deliberate on all matters, and the personnel of various administrative agencies do not have any power of judgment, but can only provide opinions on political affairs in advance. More than 30 is the method adopted by the modern "extreme civilian regime". As mentioned above, this kind of regime can actually be compared to the "power politics" in the oligarchy and the "tyranny" in the monarchy. See 1292a17-21, b7-10, 1293b32-34. .

The above-mentioned ways of arranging the deliberative functions are all based on populism.There are also many ways to achieve the second arrangement of oligarchy, which leaves everything to the deliberation of certain citizens. 35 The first way is to stipulate the property qualifications of all members participating in the deliberative body. This property qualification is not high, so as to ensure the number of citizens participating in the deliberations; Zhang's matters.The former, that is, people who must have a certain amount of property to enjoy the right to discuss affairs are originally a feature of oligarchy, but here the number is set lower, so there is a tendency towards a republic.The 40th and second way to achieve this arrangement is to further limit the conditions for members of parliament to participate in the deliberative body.Members of the deliberative body are limited to a few selected people, even if many people have a certain property qualification, but these people cannot all participate.Here is also like the above method, 1298b stipulates that all members elected to participate in the deliberations should abide by the established law, so this method is biased towards the nature of oligarchs.Another way is that those who participate in the deliberative function are either elected by each other to fill in the vacancy, or inherited from father to son, and the power of these people who participate in the deliberative function can exceed the law.The result of such an arrangement is the formation of an oligarchic (rich family) regime ΓΠ manuscript is "oligarchic regime", Corae's revised version (1821), Susmere's revised version, etc. regime"; Welton's English translation of the school as "the narrowest oligarchy". .

A third arrangement is that some matters are considered by some and others are not, and the rest are left for the consideration of all citizens. 5 For example, the general assembly of citizens deliberates on matters related to war and peace and executives; all other political affairs are handled by the executives, and the executives are revised from Brandis by election, and the following deletes "or casting lots ": The ruler is produced by "election", which is consistent with the aristocratic regime below. If it is produced by "casting lots", the words "civilian regime" should be added below.produce.An aristocracy has this arrangement.Another way is for some matters to be considered by elected officers and others to be deliberated by those drawn by lot.It should be noted that there are two methods of casting lots, that is, all participate in the casting of lots or only those candidates who have passed the examination are allowed to participate in the casting of lots.Another way is to deliberate all matters by a deliberative body composed of a mixture of elected and lottery personnel.The arrangement of these channels partly embodies the aristocratic nature of the republican government, and partly reflects the true style of the republican government.

These are the various modes of deliberative bodies, which correspond to different forms of government.The manner in which each polity forms its council is in one of the various ways which we have spoken of.

The extreme civilian regime that is currently prevalent in the world is one in which the civilians in charge of the highest power can even override the law. 15 In the interests of this regime, the course may be taken: to improve the quality of the deliberative body, the methods of oligarchy implemented in court (judgment) assemblies may be used.The oligarchs and the populists have resorted to opposite methods, the former by fines for the rich, and the latter by stipends for the poor, in order to have as many rich men as they wish to attend the courts. method.As for the assembly of citizens for deliberation,20 the civilian government can use the method of compulsory attendance on them.In this way, the effect of mixing common people and famous people (noble class) is achieved. At this time, the results obtained by everyone discussing together must be more appropriate and thoughtful.This result is also quite advantageous for the common government: in a city-state, the number of parts participating in the deliberative body should be equal, and each part represents "representatives [elected] of each part", which can be represented by various parts. A tribe can also be divided into two parts: the noble class and the common people.

According to the above, this refers to the distinction of the latter category.The citizens’ assemblies of the Greek city-states were attended by all citizens, and the representative system mentioned here and in Volume VI, Chapter III, 1318a11-18 is an important material in ancient political history (see "Cambridge Ancient History" [Cambridge Ancient History], Volume VI 73 pages).The generation can be by election or lottery.It is also good for the populace: if the number of commoners far outnumbers the number of eminent persons with political experience, then the attendance allowance for the Citizens' Assembly should not be paid to all citizens,25 but to eminent persons. The same number of common people, for those citizens who exceed the number of famous people, if the common people have a great advantage and the noble class is unwilling to submit to the common people, it will cause disturbance, so Aristotle wants to find a balance of power between the two parties picture.See Chapter 1296, 16a1319, Juan VI, Chapter 11, 1326b31, Juan VII, Chapter [-], [-]a[-]. , it can be eliminated by lottery, so that the number of the two parts can be balanced.

From the point of view of the oligarchy, the following two methods can be adopted: a number of people participating in the deliberative group can be selected from the common people by mutual election; See also 30b1299 below and Vol. 30, Chapter 1322, 16b1323.Also, in 6a[-], the Preliminary Review Council was regarded as an oligarchy organization, and the "Legal Guardian Council" was an aristocratic organization, which is different from the section in which both belong to the oligarchy.organization that deliberates on all bills delivered to citizen groups.According to the latter method, although the common people can enjoy the right to discuss matters, they have already disturbed all the established rules of the current administrative system.

Another way to benefit the oligarchy could be to proceed in the following ways: either by providing that the method of referendum can only be used if the case submitted by the governing body is passed, or at least that the resolution of the referendum and the measures of the governing body cannot contradict each other ; or the speeches of all citizens in the assembly should be limited to the scope of advisory nature, 35 but in fact it is the group of administrative staff that holds the deliberative function.If the last method is adopted, the oligarchy and the republic adopt the opposite method in practice: the oligarchy stipulates that the supreme power of the common people is only valid for vetoing individual cases, and the governing bodies must review the matters or whatever they can decide. initiative.The executives of the republic have the right to veto, but they have no power to decide. Their proposals must be decided by the common people and cannot be directly implemented. 40α
关于议事机能以议事机能为政体最高权力所寄托的论点已见卷二章六1264b33—35、卷三章十一、1282a23—29所述。，即城邦政体的最高要素，我们的结论就是上面这些。

Chapter Fifteen

接着，我们将研究行政机能这一要素所寄托的执政人员和机构。无论在哪种政体中，如同议事部分一样，行政机能也可以有若干种安排。所有城邦的行政机构的数目、职司以及任期关于行政机构的研究，上章1298a1—3举三题，本章此节举四题，增加“任期”一题。但此题在本章只于1294a34—b10间稍露端倪；卷五章八1308a13—17略有涉及；卷六章八重论行政机构时亦未详述“任期”这一论题（参看《苏校》二版1343注；《纽校》1514—7、Ⅲ253）。都有差异。

(End of this chapter)