politics

Chapter 58 Volume (Z) Six (1)
Chapter One
Now that we have dealt with the (1) deliberative bodies, that is, the institutions upon which the supreme power of the state rests, the (2) various executive organizations, and (3) the various courts (i.e., judicial organizations) that make up the polity, we have shown their respective We also discussed the nature and number of each type of city-state when creating a political system. 35 What kind of organization should be adopted in each type of these institutions? .At the same time, we have also studied the reasons why various regimes were overthrown but preserved and the related situations are shown in Volume [-]. .We may now proceed to consider how the various forms of government are to be established.After the narration of "Reformation and Preservation of Various Political Systems" in Volume [-] and Volume [-], this volume continues to discuss "how to build a more durable political system".First, in the last few chapters of Volume [-], the various organizational prototypes of the three state agencies of administration, judiciary, and deliberation are respectively explained. Here, it is further described how to choose various organizational plans according to the political requirements of each state, and then merge these three agencies to create A proper and complete form of government.

What is actually described below is only the construction of each species in the two types of oligarchs and commoners.The fourth of the five topics listed in Volume 1289, Chapter 20, 22b1317-35 is "how to construct various regimes exemplified by oligarchs and common people", which has been explained clearly in Volume 1318, Chapters 7 to 1318. This volume supplements Volume IV by revisiting this topic.The purpose of this kind of construction is to avoid changes, so that the states can enjoy long-term stability. It can also be said that this volume is an extension of the preservation methods discussed in volume five.Volumes 6b1319 and 6b[-] of this volume both call volume four and volume five "the first part", so this volume should be the "second part" of those two volumes.There are several varieties of civil government and other forms of government, see Volume [-], Chapters [-]-[-]. ; We will continue to study the establishment of various varieties that have not yet been stated, see the following article [-] [-]b[-]-[-]a[-]. , especially attention should be paid to their respective organizational methods and which ones are appropriate and beneficial.

We also need to consider the various organizational forms of the three 40 (administrative, judicial, and deliberative) power agencies, and what kind of collocation they may have when they are combined into the same regime; different combinations may make various regimes become mutual 1317ɑ Mixed regimes, such as aristocratic regimes mixed with oligarchic regimes, or republican regimes that emphasize the nature of democracy refer to Volume 1293, Chapter 34, 5b10. .The cooperation mode of the three mechanisms that should be described but has not been explained so far can be illustrated with examples.Here it can be that the election system of executives and deliberative bodies is arranged according to the principle of oligarchy, while the judiciary (trial) organization is based on the principle of virtue, or that the judiciary and deliberative bodies are arranged according to the principle of oligarchy but the selection of officials is based on the principle of virtue .Perhaps it is the combination of various other methods, so that a political system is mixed with different factors, and several mixed political systems with different contents but all of them are mixed. problem, but there is no chapter in this volume to discuss it in detail.The main purpose of Aristotle's mixed regime is to seek a balance of power among the three institutions, so that it conforms to the principles of the state's constitution.Notes on Buckle's English translation, the constitutional thought of England in the [-]th century can be compared with this section. .

We have already explained see volume four chapter twelve.What kind of civil government is suitable for what kind of citizen group; what kind of oligarchy is suitable for what kind of society; and what other kinds of government are suitable for what city-state.But it is not enough to determine for each city the proper form of government; we should also briefly reveal the proper way of establishing these and other forms of government.Let us begin with the plebiscite, and having explained it, it will be easier for you to get a general idea of ​​its opposite, the so-called oligarchy.We must first know all the qualities (attributes) of the commonwealth, and its various characteristics—in order to proceed with this study.The different combinations of these qualities form the various forms of plebiscite; why they are not just one form,15 and why they diverge, can be illuminated in terms of these different combinations.

There are two reasons why the common government is divided into several varieties.One of them has already been discussed, see Volume 1291 Chapter 17 28b1292-25, Chapter 1293 10b1296-26a31, Chapter 25 1319b38-32.Refer to Chapter 30 of this volume. . [-] Each state has a different people: here the people may be artisans or servants, there may be farmers.Different peoples have different forms of plebiscite; and if you add peasants to artisans, servants to peasants and laborers, and make them a plebeian, it will not only be better or worse in degree than the previous plebeians. They are divided, and they are essentially different, becoming different varieties. Please refer to Chapter [-] [-]a[-]-b[-] of this volume. .However, it is no longer necessary to deal with the first reason here, [-] and now we shall describe the second reason.

For this reason, the different varieties of plebeian polity are due to the different combinations of those qualities which are characteristic of the plebeian: for these qualities one variety of plebeian government, with some omissions, another variety Possess more qualities, and another variety has all kinds of qualities.Sometimes it is necessary to build some new form of government,35 and sometimes it is only necessary to make some improvements to the existing forms, and if they can understand all the qualities of these common people, it will certainly be beneficial to its creation.Those who are engaged in creating a regime often take all the qualities connected with the spirit of the regime, and incorporate them all into their system.But this is wrong, as we described above, see Volume 1309, Chapter 18, 1310b36-1317a30.The topic of the subversion and preservation of regimes has already been dealt with in 35a35-38, saying that a general study of these plebeian qualities should be made, and lines [-]-[-] saying that the qualities of democracy are either detrimental to the lasting effect of plebeian regimes, or conducive to the preservation of democracy, It is necessary to know its pros and cons so that it will not be used indiscriminately. .

Let us now examine the sentiments, principles, and ends (purposes) of common government.

The three nouns here have different interpretations in various translations:

à áξιμαα
, translated as "catechism" according to the original meaning, or "assumption" (self-evident argument) or "principle".

àθη
, "ethical quality", or translated as "sentiment", or translated as "virtue".

νεναι

"The goal sought" is the same as the "purpose" in the next chapter 1317b11 and 14, which is hereby translated as "purpose".The three things of the civilian regime are the "legal meaning" (spirit) (πóθεσιs, Xu Pu Sexue) of the civilian regime mentioned in the next sentence (the first sentence of the next chapter). The original meaning of "Xu Pu Sexue" is "set up", and the translations are interpreted as "consciousness" or "legal meaning" or "foundation". The "civilian quality" mentioned in line 1317a19 is also consistent with the "spirit of the common government". .

Chapter Two
The spirit of populist regimes is "freedom".Generally speaking, every civil government has freedom as its purpose (purpose), and everyone thinks that freedom can only be enjoyed in a common government40b
See Plato: "Utopia" Volume 557 562, 5B. .One of the points of liberty embodied in political life is that the people take turns being the ruler and the ruled.Civilian justice requires mathematical (quantitative) equality. See Volume 10, Chapter 1310.It does not advocate equality based on merit.According to the concept of mathematics, the common people must have the highest power; political affairs are determined by the will of the majority, and the will of the majority is justice.The so-called "equality" means that all citizens are equal; therefore, in a civilian government,25 since the poor belong to the majority, the majority determines everything, so that the poor have higher power than the rich.Here lies the first principle of liberty, which all populists make the purpose of their regime.Another key point reflected in personal life is "life should be done according to the situation, each according to 31 wishes".Populists say that compared with slaves who cannot live according to their own will, only in this way can they be called free people. Refer to Volume [-], [-]a[-]-[-]. The purpose of common civil government.

λεθερο (free man) originally means an "adult"; when a man reaches the age of citizenship, he is no longer bound under his father's management, has his own wife, and becomes a father.At this time, he has an independent personality, can realize his will, undertake the obligations of citizens, and enjoy the rights of citizens at the same time, and manage slaves.This is his freedom (θευθερα).life.This is the second purpose of civil government.According to this purpose, no one should be ruled by anyone, but such freedom is actually unavailable, so a political system of taking turns to rule and be ruled appears.Such is the 15 contribution to a free rotation system based on equality.

These spirits (legal meaning) are the foundations of the equal government, and on this basis we further study its various characteristics.In administration, there is the system of appointments by election of officers from among all the citizens; there is the arrangement of all in turn to rule, and to be governed in turn; and there is the provision of lottery for participation in political bodies,20 at least those which do not require expertise and experience. Participation can be taken in turn by lottery; and there is no property quota restriction at all for the qualifications of officials, or only very low property qualifications are set; The necessity of re-election, too, is limited to a very few offices, with one or two occasional exceptions; and finally, the rule that all offices—at least as many as possible—should be short-lived.On the judicial side, there is also the system of public 25 courts, composed of all citizens or persons elected from among all citizens, competent to try all cases, at least the majority of cases, including those of the greatest importance, such as censorship Financial and government reports, public-private contracts, and legal matters.In terms of deliberation, those with the highest governing power should belong to the system of the citizens' assembly,30 all political affairs, at least military affairs, must be decided by the citizens' assembly; Small.

Among the various administrative agencies, if a country does not have enough public funds to pay the allowances for citizens to attend the general assembly, then the council can also be included in the "administrative agency" in the civilian government. For example, the Athens council not only prepares for the citizens' assembly It also handles other administrative business such as donating lessons.The 500 members of the Athenian Council, chosen by lot, all had attendance allowances.It is the institution with the most obvious civilian characteristics.If the city-state's treasury is abundant, once the citizens can receive subsidies, they will take all political affairs under their own control (citizen assembly). See Volume 1299, Chapter 36, 1300b8-35a[-] in our previous monograph.This has also been mentioned. [-] Yet another feature of civilian government is this subsidy system.

According to the ideal of civil government, it would be best if all institutions--Assemblies, Executives, Tribunals--are all subsidized; Citizens must be given allowances, and the governing agencies must also be given allowances (salaries), at least those who are required to participate in public canteen dinners.The meal expenses are paid by public funds; the income of the ruling staff is this kind of "food allowance", just like the salary of public officials in ancient China is called "salary".The ruling staff must give.Here, as in the oligarchy, the characteristics of the oligarchy are the same, relative to family status (family birth), education and wealth, and the characteristics of the populace are just the opposite: 40 low birth, vulgarity and poverty.This sentence does not follow the context, according to "Su School" and "New School", add < >.Another characteristic of civilian government is the abolition of life tenure for all posts. 1318ɑIf a certain post still retains the provision of life tenure after the previous generation's reform, its power must be reduced, and such tenure posts should be abolished by lottery instead. Lifetime positions refer to the gradual removal of the custom and power of the throne and commander in the city-states of ancient Greece; see Volume 1285, Chapter 13, 19b[-]-[-].and no longer be appointed by election.

These are the most common features of common civil regimes.However, among the various forms of civilian government and various types of civilians, the 5 types of people recognized by the public are typical. Among the various types of civilians mentioned here, it is not clear which type of people should be used as a model.According to the wording below, it is consistent with the first of the five types of civilians mentioned in Volume 1291, Chapter 28, 38b10-[-].When Zhang Sitong discusses the various forms of civilian regimes constructed by the three types of common people, shepherds, businessmen, and peasants, Aristotle especially praises the peasant city-states. , should focus on justice and take into account the mathematical equality of the rights of all citizens, rather than on these characteristics.In this kind of regime, the true meaning of equality is that the poor do not take advantage of the rich, and the power of governance does not depend entirely on the part of the poor (class), but is evenly distributed to all the people in terms of quantity.If populists obey such concepts, one can be sure that equality and liberty will indeed be achieved in their political system. [-]
Chapter three
The next question is: How can such equality be practically achieved?Whether to divide the estimated property of all the citizens into two equal divisions, so that on one side there are citizens with five hundred large properties, and on the other, citizens with a thousand small properties, both divisions holding equal political power ?Or should another calculation system be adopted,15 for example, after the total property is divided into two districts, the two districts with 500 people and 1000 people each elect the same number of representatives, and these representatives will jointly handle the election and organization of executives The difference between the two systems of the public court: ([-]) The officials or personnel elected by the two districts are two equivalent groups in each institution. ([-]) The representatives of the two districts are combined into one group before the election of the deliberative and judicial personnel and administrative officials. In this way, on the surface, the elected people in each institution will not have opposing divisions. ?For the distribution of political power, both systems take care of property.

(End of this chapter)