politics

Chapter 82 Appendix I (2)
Chapter [-] Some people say that there is a distinction between high and low talents, and that political affairs should be entrusted to a few virtuous or most outstanding figures, and it is not appropriate to entrust ordinary people.But though the masses are commonplace individually, yet collectively they have as much power of judgment as the expert, and no less property than the rich, and there are many advantages to having the masses take part in the deliberations and judiciary, so the rule of the majority is feasible.But no matter what form of government, it should be in accordance with the law, and those who have the right to rule should use their personal wisdom only in matters not prescribed by the law.

Chapter [-] Political Morality pays special attention to justice.Justice, according to the principle of "fairness", distributes equal things to equal people.The distribution of political rights should be based on the actual contribution (merit) to the group: citizens get as much rights as they fulfill their duties.

Chapter [-] Wealth, family background, talent and virtue, and the collective majority coexist in the city-state, and each strives for it according to its contribution to the city-state as the standard for enjoying political rights.If it is based on populism, people with outstanding talents and virtues should be expelled to maintain the rule of the majority. The "law of exile" can be regarded as an appropriate policy.According to the standard of talent and virtue, once there are outstanding sages in the country, they should be regarded as kings.

([-]) Chapters [-] to [-]: Various types of monarchy (royal system)
章十四王制有五种：（1）斯巴达式；（2）野蛮民族的酋王；（3）民选总裁；（4）史诗时代的王制；（5）专制君主。

Chapter [-] explores the last type of royal system, and there is the question of "rule by man or rule by law".Both have their own advantages: the rule of man can adapt to changing situations, while the rule of law can avoid the partiality of human feelings.But the general political system should always follow the law. As far as the monarch is concerned, his rule should also be regulated by the constitution. Despotism is not a good policy.Although the law is a fixed provision, it cannot cover everything, and the ruler must use his own wisdom to deal with matters not stipulated by the law, but it is not necessarily better for a single person to decide independently than for the majority to consider.The monarchy prevailed in the simpler societies in ancient times, but it is no longer suitable in this world.

Chapter Sixteen Some people say that professional skills can create excellent works, and that a king can benefit the people if he specializes in governing the way.Such an analogy may not be appropriate; it is always inappropriate for an autocratic monarch to remain in power for life and keep the free people of a country in a vassal position for life.Moreover, the succeeding monarchs are often incompetent or immoral, which will inevitably harm the whole country.

Chapter [-] Only when an outstanding superman appears somewhere in the world can the absolute power of the monarch be given to make him reign for life.

Chapter eighteen should further study how to establish a good political system.The method of making a good man should be the same as that of a good government; the purpose of both is the quality of life.

Volume [-] Categories of Reality

([-]) Chapters [-] and [-]: Introduction

Chapter [-] Politics should study ideal regimes and practical problems, such as: what is the best regime that can be realized under realistic conditions; what is the best regime that most city-states can implement; how to preserve the current regimes; Important, such as civilian government and oligarchy, what are the specific categories.Political science is the study of regimes as well as laws.

Chapter [-] In addition to monarchy and aristocracy, we should continue to discuss the four types of authentic republican government and perverted oligarchy, civilian government, and tyrant government, explain their types, and analyze the appropriate forms of various citizen groups, as well as various The way in which the form is composed and the reasons for its corruption and preservation measures.

([-]) Chapters Three to Ten: Various Types of Civilian Government, Oligarchy and Republic
Chapter [-] The types of regimes are derived from the various parts that make up the city-state, such as the differences between the common people and the nobles.The various political functions of the city-state can be arranged in a number of different ways, and accordingly there may be a number of different political forms.Some people say that there are only two types of government: civilians and oligarchs, and the rest are intermediates between these two types. This statement is general but inappropriate.

Chapter [-] Civilian government is the rule of the majority of the poor, and oligarchy is the rule of the rich few.People distinguish the types of animals according to the differences of various organs and their combinations. We should also study the social composition of each city-state, the ruling structure of each political body and the arrangement of various functions to explain the various forms of the two types of political bodies.According to this analysis, it can be clearly seen that there are five types of civilian regimes, in order until the last extreme civilian regime, where the will of the masses is above all functions and laws, which violates the rule of governance and is similar to tyranny.

Chapter [-] Similarly, oligarchy is also divided into four types, the worst one is "family politics", the ruling party is extremely xenophobic, the name and position are hereditary, and the power exceeds the law, which is also similar to tyranny.

Chapter [-]. According to a certain aspect of social conditions, if the citizens of the country have leisure to engage in politics, the civil government can be divided into one type of "agricultural" nature and the other three types.Oligarchies, in terms of the amount of property required for the various functions, can also be divided into four additional categories.

Chapter [-] The purest aristocratic regime is a regime based on talent and virtue; the other three are mixed with other elements, and they are all close to a republican regime.

Chapter Eight republics are a mix of both plebeians and oligarchs.Most people tend to think that the mixed regime tends to be populist as a "republic", while the one that tends to oligarchy is regarded as an "aristocratic" regime.Therefore, the terms republic and nobility are often confused.In order to make the names of the two terms clear, we use the mixed regime that accommodates free-born civilians, wealthy families, and talented people and values ​​virtue as "nobles", while the mixed regime that only needs to take into account the two elements of free-born and wealth called "Republic".

Chapter 1 There are three different ways to mix commoners and wealthy elements to form a republic. (2) Merge the two systems of the populace and the oligarchy; (3) a compromise between the two; ([-]) take certain properties from each of the two regimes and mix them.A republic is successful when it is mixed so that no one can tell whether it is a commoner or an oligarch. The mixed government of Sparta is an example.

Chapter Ten Among the three types of tyranny, the monarchy (royal system) implemented in non-Greek nations and the elected head of state in ancient Greece have been used as two types of monarchy, which have been explained in Chapter [-] of the previous volume.The third type is the original form of tyranny: the tyrant arbitrates the whole country and handles everything completely based on his own self-interest.

([-]) Chapters [-] to [-]: Forms of government suitable for general city-states
and the various forms of government available to various groups of citizens
Chapter [-] argues that politics should advocate moderation. A republic dominated by the middle class is between the rich and the poor, and can coordinate the disputes between the two classes. It is relatively stable and suitable for ordinary city-states.However, since ancient times, there were not many middle-class people and they were not enthusiastic about political power. However, Sparta and Athens encouraged their neighbors to go to the two extremes of common people and oligarchs respectively, so the rule of republic became less in Greece.

Chapter [-] Mixed regimes require a balance between qualities.If there are more civilians in the country who pay attention to quantity than rich people who pay attention to quality, a civilian government is bound to be established, and vice versa, an oligarchy is bound to be established.A republic can be established if the middle class is more powerful than the poor and the rich (that is, a combined quantitative and qualitative force) or only one of the two.If the legislators of the civilian and oligarchy government can pay attention to the role of the middle class in the regime they build with a preference for prime numbers (that is, class bias), it will definitely be beneficial to reality.

Hypocrisy leads to misfortune in vain. It is not advisable to have a political system in which a few people are in power, and the people are deceived by hypocrisy and have no real power.

CHAPTER [-]. There are five ways in which an oligarchy deceives the masses of the poor.The populace has a corresponding method of defrauding the rich.But deceit is not as good as honesty, and bias is not as good as coordination.The organization of a country's civic associations is equivalent to that of the armed forces.Deceitful methods can never make people contribute to the country and dedicate themselves to service.By the way, the impact of the changes in the composition of the ancient army on the development of the Greek regime is mentioned.

([-]) Chapters [-] to [-]: The Three Functions of Discussion, Administration and Judgment by Various Governments
There should be appropriate institutions for each

Chapter Fourteen city-states have three functions: discussion, administration, and trial (judicial).The ways of the deliberation function include: (1) all citizens gather to discuss all things; (2) some citizens gather to discuss all things; (3) all citizens gather to discuss some things while some citizens gather to discuss other things, correspondingly becoming ① common people, ②Oligarchs and nobles and ③Republican way.During implementation, the three methods have different arrangements to suit various types of political regimes.

Chapter [-] As far as administrative agencies are concerned, there are more or less types of functions, light or heavy powers, long or short terms of office, and the methods of appointment are different by election or lottery. Each chooses an arrangement consistent with its founding purpose.

Chapter [-] Judgmental institutions, that is, courts, are divided into eight categories according to the nature of the case and the trial procedure.There are three important ways of organizing courts, and various regimes have their own arrangements to accommodate them.

Volume [-] Coups and Revolutions

([-]) Chapters [-] to [-]: Common causes of change

Chapter [-] Generally, city-states use a partial concept of justice and equality as the principle of establishing political power; various forces (parties) with different concepts in the city-state attempt to overthrow this kind of regime, which is the general cause of coups and revolutions.Coups sometimes completely overthrow the old regime, and sometimes only partial reforms are made.Populists talk about equality in terms of (liberal status) quantities, and oligarchs talk about equality in terms of (property) amounts. Both have their own preferences, and neither is immune to internal strife, but populists are often more stable than oligarchies.

Chapter Two describes the general causes of change from three aspects: (1) the general state of mind; (2) the attempts of the revolutionaries; (3) the motives for the occurrence of events.

Chapter [-] analyzes the two types of motives that triggered the revolution, and lists eleven cases.

The incidents in Chapter Four often started from small negligence, leaving huge hidden dangers, and private trivial matters can often affect the overall situation.In a city-state, on the one hand, it may be because some functions are too powerful, or some parts are over-prosperous; Coup or revolution.Revolutionary activities mostly use violence and fraud.

([-]) Chapters [-] to [-]: The reasons for the change of various regimes and the corresponding remedies

Chapter [-] Civilian regimes are often brought about by the policies of the leaders of the people against the rich, or the rebellion of the rich is provoked, or the leaders of the people take the opportunity to establish themselves as tyrants.

Political activists often demand to expand the power of the masses in order to please the common people, so the civilian government has changed from the moderate old type to the modern extreme type.

Chapter VI Changes in oligarchy often result from government oppression of the masses, or internal strife within the ruling group.Sometimes social wealth increases, the number of people qualified to serve as officials increases day by day, and changes in the ruling group lead to changes in the political system.

Chapter VII In an aristocratic regime, if the ruling group is too exclusive, it often leads to internal strife and change.

Both aristocracy and republic are mixed regimes, and if the internal components are out of balance, it will lead to internal strife.

Aristocratic governments are often led to great disasters by small things; republics are often gradually corrupted.

All regimes may be overthrown by external enemies, or internal changes may be caused by external aggression.

Chapter [-] The methods of maintaining and preserving the common people, oligarchs, nobles, and republican regime: rectify the law and discipline, and prevent erroneous things from happening; emphasize loyalty and trustworthiness, and coordinate the whole state; beware of enemies and bandits, and unite the people; be careful about fame and status, have appropriate rewards and punishments, and pay attention to speculators in the state; Observe the society, do not allow a certain part to prosper; prohibit official corruption.

A common government should take care of the rich, and an oligarchy should help the poor.

Chapter [-] goes on to discuss the methods of maintaining the various regimes: those in power should be loyal and virtuous, and not bend the law for personal gain.Any political system should obtain the support of the majority of citizens in order to be stable.All measures must not be extreme, only by adhering to the golden mean can last.To educate the people so that their thoughts and daily conduct are in conformity with the purposes of the Constitution; civic education is often neglected in the world, and especially indiscreet in extreme civil regimes, which encourage freedom to "do as one pleases."

Chapter [-] The change and maintenance of the monarchy (one chief) regime (royalty and tyranny): insult, fear, contempt, and ambition can all arouse people to overthrow the monarch.The fall of the tyranny was either due to the attack of an enemy state or due to civil strife.Tyrants are more focused on self-interest than oligarchs and the worst types of plebeian regimes, often hated and loathed by the populace.The royal system is similar to the aristocratic regime, and its purpose is to lead the development of society and guard the interests of all parts, so it can last for a long time.But equality is strongly advocated nowadays, and the monarchy is rarely preserved; the monarchies seen in modern times are all tyrants who usurp the right to rule by force.

(End of this chapter)