A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 16 Life in the Middle Ages
[-]. The feudal system

What is the feudal system? The feudal system is that the feudal landlord class occupies the land and exploits the surplus labor force of the peasants (or serfs). It is based on the mutual protection of the feudal landlords and peasants.Feudalism arose simply, a man with leadership united with many poor peasants to overthrow the old social system and jointly own and cultivate large tracts of land to protect their lives and property.The basic form of exploitation is feudal land rent. Peasants (or serfs) cultivate the land of feudal landlords, and most of the output is exploited by feudal landlords as land rent.This is the social system prevailing in Western Europe.It has two main characteristics: protection and service, that is, the strong protect the weak, and the weak serve the strong.The basis of this interdependence and mutual influence relationship is mainly the right of land tenure - the possession of land by feudal landlords.

Not a system In the true sense, the feudal system is not a perfect system.The reason for saying this is that regularity and consistency are conditions that a system must possess, but the feudal system does not.This system prevailed throughout Western Europe, with many local and regional variations.The institutional forms of each place have both similarities and differences. The contracts made by feudal landlords are based on their own vital interests.However, the essence of the feudal system is the same, both safeguarding the interests of the feudal landlords.

The origin of the feudal system The emergence of the feudal system has a certain degree of chance and has not been carefully planned.The main reason for the emergence of the feudal system was that there was no powerful government at that time, unable to guarantee the safety of people's lives and property, and unable to effectively coordinate various relationships between people.Due to the continuous invasion of foreign barbarians, the old Roman regime was completely destroyed, and the new government and country have not yet been fully established. It may take centuries to perfect the law and standardize the social order.In this urgent situation, there is no better way to solve the problems that arise, and the feudal system emerges and develops.

In fact, the feudal system appeared a long time ago, and terms such as protector and protected person appeared in ancient Rome.A rich man with a powerful large farm provides protection and farming guidance to the poor tenant farmers living on his land. Correspondingly, the tenant farmers have to pay a certain amount of labor.There used to be such a custom among the Germanic tribes, but it only existed between young men and old warriors. In order to get more exercise, young warriors often follow experienced and famous old warriors.With the development of the times, this relationship has changed slightly.In the dark age of ancient Rome, the country was repeatedly invaded, the smoke continued, the people suffered greatly, and groups of bandits plundered everywhere. In order to survive, the peasant had to beg for the protection of the nearby wealthy landlords. The desperate situation forced him to pay Any price, even handing over your own farmland to the landlord.But fate has been kind to him, because he can still live on the land, but no longer as a farmer, but as a tenant farmer of the lord.However, those poor people who do not have land are not so lucky. They can only live by selling themselves, and may become the lord's personal servants.They are everywhere, either serving the master at the table or standing guard at the gate of the castle.

Therefore, the emergence of the feudal system was not carefully planned. It was a product of the times and a social system that had been tested by history and practice.According to the actual situation at that time, it is in line with the law of historical development.

Feudal contract The feudal relationship is essentially a contract to maintain the feudal master's etiquette, and everyone has the responsibility to fulfill the promise.The contractual relationship is mutual, and rights and obligations are often bound together.Countries, kings and even cities and churches in Western Europe all had certain contractual relationships.In short, feudalism encompassed all classes and institutions in Western European society.

Feudal nouns and forms During the feudal period, many feudal proper nouns were produced. When we understand feudal society, we must understand the meaning of certain feudal nouns. In addition, we must understand the detailed meaning of feudal policies. Otherwise, we will not be able to understand deeply when reading related materials. An interesting story about feudalism.

Lord In slave society and feudal society, the ruler who was entrusted with political power and land ownership in a specific area was called a "lord".The lord's land is not all his own.Some land was originally owned by the lord, and some farmers sold their land to the landlord in order to obtain asylum, but the farmers were still allowed to live on this land.In either case, the person who held the land was called a "lord," but was sometimes called a "prince" or "suzerain."

A vassal tenant, that is, a peasant who leases a certain landlord's land.In feudal society, people who were granted fiefdoms by superior lords and established feudal rights and obligations with them were called "vassals".Vassals are also known as "retainers", or "vassals", and are sometimes simply referred to as "people", the people to whom the lord belongs.In the late feudal period, the vassals were usually nobles, and they were often divided into layers under the vassals to other vassals—those who held part of the vassals’ land.

All property owned by fiefs and vassals, including land, is called "fief", also known as "fief".In this way the original origin of "feudalism" and the meaning of the term are better understood. "Shiye" seems very strange nowadays, but it is not. It is another term for fief or possession.But "world industry" also has different meanings. The land held by the tenant is "world industry"; if it is the owner of the land, it is called "absolute world industry". "Absolute shiye" is also common today, referring to full ownership.

At first, "territory" refers to the land held by vassals in the form of enfeoffment. With the development of society, enfeoffment was gradually replaced by hereditary, which was inherited from father to son. This is another meaning of fiefdom.

Court ceremony and tin seal Through a certain ceremony, someone promises to obey the lord absolutely and serve under the lord. This kind of ceremony is called "Court ceremony".The lord also passed a certain ceremony to hand over the fiefdom to the vassals for management and promised to protect it. This ceremony is called "tin seal".The usual court ceremony is like this: the vassal will go to the lord's palace, kneel in front of the lord, clasp his hands, put his hands in the lord's hand, and at the same time swear: "I swear, I will be loyal to my lord. The lord, like everyone's responsibilities to the lord, belongs to you forever." Then the lord will "tin seal" the land to the vassal, and he will give the vassal a flag, a walking stick and a deed , as a certificate of tin sealing industry, or sending a branch and a clod of soil as a symbol of promise to protect vassals, this is the so-called "tin seal".

Duties of both parties From this it can be seen that a contract between a lord and a vassal is a feudal treaty which contains mutual obligations of both parties.This is the essential characteristic of every feudal contract.The lord should protect his vassals, defend against the invasion of foreign enemies, and resist the intrusion of thieves. At the same time, the lord should also act as an arbitrator. When there are disputes and conflicts among the vassals, the lord must ensure absolute justice and fairness.In addition, the lord often opened courts in his palace to hear some cases related to vassals.

Vassals have many obligations to the lord and must obey the lord absolutely.Under normal circumstances, vassals are required to undertake military service and court labor.In certain special situations, the vassals also have to pay corresponding special payments: (1) If the lord is captured by the enemy and the other party asks for a ransom, the vassal must use the ransom to rescue the lord. (2) When the lord's son is honored and awarded the title of knight, the vassals have to pay gift money to celebrate. (3) When the lord's daughter gets married, the vassals also have to pay gift money.These special payments are called "grants" to vassals.

In terms of status, neither the lord nor the vassals belonged to the common people. They were all of "noble origin" and had the title of nobility.At the same time, they are also good at fighting and are powerful figures in the army, so they think of themselves as noble, and their status and status are much higher than ordinary manual laborers.The lords and vassals are divided into different ranks, which can be divided into dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons according to the rank of title.Dukes are second only to kings.These noble families have kept a large number of combat-capable subordinates, known as "knights".

Knights These warriors were called "knights" because their main task was to fight on horseback.If the lord assigns them a task to go to the battlefield, their annual service period can reach about forty days.The knight must prepare his own horses and swords and weapons, as well as some followers, and prepare horses and protective armor for all expedition personnel.A knight usually carries a warrior with him, known as a squire.This attendant will help the knight lead the horse and carry a knife and gun. If the knight is unfortunately injured or falls off the horse after being attacked, the attendant must step forward to protect and treat the knight at any time.Generally speaking, in the European army in the Middle Ages, the real combat power was the knights. Whether a lord was powerful or not depended entirely on how many knights he could raise and summon, and his strength was measured by the number of knights.

In addition, we should know that knights symbolize bravery and fighting strength.Therefore, the king and the nobles at all levels are willing to grant their sons the title of knight, which is a symbol of honor and a special means of education.Therefore, as long as anyone who obtains the title of "knight" in a public and legitimate way can be called a "knight".

Inheritance When a lord or vassal passes away, there must be heirs and property division. His property, fief land, and various responsibilities and obligations stipulated in the feudal contract must be passed on to his legal heirs.Generally speaking, the rules of succession and estate distribution are not static and often change due to certain circumstances.For a long time in Europe, if the lord or vassal had several sons, the inheritance and fiefdom were divided equally, and each son had the right to inherit.But later it gradually developed to the point that only the eldest son could obtain the right to inherit and obtain all the inheritance left by his father.This gradually became customary and became known as the "privilege of primogeniture".Primogeniture gradually fostered a real hierarchy of privilege, who became the proud and outrageous aristocratic landowners and the main basis of feudal power.However, this happened in the late feudal period, and in the early medieval period, the status of the nobility was completely evaluated and established on the basis of personal ability, bravery, leadership, etc.

The feudal fief contract system in cities and towns not only appeared in rural farms, but also in cities and towns.Usually most towns belong to a certain king, duke, earl or bishop, the town is their territory, and the vassals have to supply soldiers to the lord to fight, and they have to pay a lot of money to get the lord's asylum.In addition, the town can also become the suzerain, under his jurisdiction, there are some farms and villages attached to the town.

The power of the feudal system of the church also penetrated into the church. Most of the churches were already feudalized at that time. Bishops and abbots of monasteries were similar to great nobles. In addition to holding religious positions, they also served as vassals or lords.In fact, many archbishops have a large number of fiefdoms and wealth. Their feudal status is very high, and they exercise corresponding power. In terms of the scope of influence and the nature of power, these bishops are almost the same as the great nobles.Generally speaking, the church forbids bishops to carry weapons with them, and they are not allowed to fight on the battlefield, but bishops often send their vassals and knights to fight.

In addition, not all of Europe at that time implemented the feudal system, and some areas were not restricted by feudal relations.For example, some cities in Italy and other regions managed to maintain their own independent sovereignty. People always obeyed the traditional Roman law, and the peasants really owned the land and had full ownership and use rights of the land.However, in Western Europe, the feudal system prevailed in an all-round way, occupied a dominant position in society, and became the economic foundation of European society.

Advantages of the feudal system Although the feudal system in Western Europe is not perfect and has many disadvantages, it can meet certain needs at that time, and at the same time adapt to the development of the times.As far as Europe was concerned at that time, the feudal system was probably the best and most suitable social system and management model.In medieval Europe, the barbarian tribes were powerful and often invaded countries with a high degree of civilization, and thieves were rampant at that time, lawless and wanton robbery.In this case, the feudal system can guarantee the personal and property safety of the residents of the territory to a certain extent, and can effectively prevent barbarian invasion and minimize the danger of aggressive wars.Although feudalism divided land and power and hindered the complete unity of national power, it also effectively curbed the ambitions of the great nobles and smashed all possibilities of centralization and dictatorship.Feudalism freed Europe from slavery, and the economic structure advanced further by acknowledging everyone as part of a feudal contract, acknowledging everyone as a responsible individual rather than a property that belonged to slavery.In addition, as far as the chivalry system is concerned, it is like a blooming flower in the feudal system, which has an important incentive to maintain chivalry and virtue.

The disadvantages of the feudal system, as we can see today, the feudal system must have its disadvantages.Although the king and those careerists who may become tyrants are bound by the feudal system, most of the power is distributed to the local lords and vassals, so that no one can expand the power in their hands infinitely and establish a dictatorship.However, the long-term implementation of the feudal system has also seriously hindered the unification of the country and ethnic forces, making it impossible to establish a strong and stable national government on a vast territory.In addition, the feudal system has continuously raised the status of aristocratic politics, and nobles of different ranks and classes have obtained various corresponding privileges.Moreover, the feudal system spread across every country in Western Europe, and various contradictions and conflicts arose between state power and church power, and even fierce struggles emerged.This will be mentioned in the next chapter.Worst of all, feudalism fueled wars, which arose because feudal lords had large numbers of vassals and knights and were able to muster large numbers of men into battle.In addition, the feudal lords also encouraged people's warlike sentiments, and deliberately cultivated and praised the so-called "chivalry" as a symbol of nobility and bravery.Therefore, people in the Middle Ages liked "horse jousting contests" very much. The knights tried every means to knock down their opponents and fall off their horses, so as to win the appreciation of the nobles and the applause and laughter of the ladies.Although the jousting contest is an entertainment game, the whole process is very similar to a real battle. This kind of game makes the knights dare not relax their minds and must always be in the mood of combat training.

"Christ's Peace" Christian churches usually keep in mind the mission of maintaining peace, and the church is always trying to prevent the outbreak of feudal wars.In this regard, the Synod decided to issue a decree of peace to certain local lords and nobles, which was called the decree of "Christian peace".There are also some religious councils that promulgate special decrees. During certain specific periods, such as a certain day of the week, or certain festivals and festivals in a year, the church advocates people to follow the decree of "God's truce".These decrees are conducive to curbing the occurrence of wars. It can also be seen from them that armed riots, harassment and aggression occurred from time to time, and battles between feudal lords were very common.Therefore, only when the king's power continues to increase, he has the power to suppress and control feudal contention, stop the war, and restore peace to it.

[-]. Castles and villages
The typical medieval farm of the manor did not consist of a landowner and his family or a few hired hands who worked there year-round.Rather, it resembles an English manor, where thousands of families share large tracts of land and work them together.Only a small number of peasants are absolute owners of the land.Most of the people on the estate were mere lot holders or tenant farmers.The estates range in size from the largest of a thousand acres to the smallest of what Americans today call "county."

The lord's castle The owner of each manor is the lord.Usually, the lord is only a knight, but sometimes the lord is of high status, a bishop or abbot, or even a feudal nobleman, such as an earl or baron, who own many manors, one of which is A luxurious manor house was their residence, and a powerful lord had a castle.

A castle is not only a residence but also a fortress.Therefore, they are generally built in dangerous and remote places, such as mountains or cliffs.Many of these ancient castles can still be seen in Europe today.Unfortunately, due to years of wind and rain and a series of wars, most of the buildings have collapsed and become ruins.The keep was built of wood or stone and included several cellars, a hall, a chapel and the living quarters of the lord's family.Watchtowers stand all around, and in the courtyard there are warehouses and simple housing for servants and laborers.Generally speaking, the lord's castle is surrounded by strong and tall walls, and the outside of the wall is a deep trench with a drawbridge on it.

There are also tenant farmers living in simple thatched huts in the manor of the tenant farmers, and they live together to form a village.For convenience and safety, villages are generally located near manor residences or castles.When dealing with daily work affairs, the tenants can communicate with the lord conveniently and quickly; in case of attack or surprise attack, the tenants can quickly move to the castle to protect their personal and property safety, and more importantly, they can assist the lord to resist tenaciously.

The importance of agriculture In medieval Europe, as in ancient Rome, agriculture largely determined the social status of most people.The vast majority of people live in the countryside all the year round, farming the land for a living, day after day, year after year, going back and forth between the farm and the land.The size and value of the manor determine the wealth and power of a feudal lord.

The distribution of land In each manor, the lord has a piece of "private land", and they compulsorily occupy some special land as exclusive land.Whether it is a lord or a tenant farmer, each household has a garden.As for all other land of the manor, it is shared by the lord and the tenant farmers.

The arable land closest to the village is divided into several plots, each separated by a narrow grass embankment area.There are many meadows outside the arable land, which are used to cultivate pasture.Outside the estate are heathlands, grazing lands and woodlands further from the village.

Each tenant farmer has dedicated plots of arable land on which to grow grain for his family and livestock.He can also mow hay on a particular meadow.Likewise, he has the right to raise a certain number of cattle and sheep on communal pastures.They also have the right to cut a certain amount of wood on public forest land if the wood is needed for building a house or for fuel.The allocation of arable land is sometimes determined by lot, and the allocation of grassland is mostly determined by lot.

Free farmers and serfs Tenant farmers are clearly divided into two classes, "free farmers" and "serfs" or "tenants".

Free farmers are wealthier tenant farmers with a small number of people who can use part of the land as long as they pay a fixed rent to the lord.Not only can they stay in the manor, but they can also leave according to their own wishes.They could either participate in the lord's court or appeal to the king's court.A tenant slave is neither a slave nor a freedman.They have a certain degree of personal freedom and enjoy the right to live in the manor, and even the lord cannot sell them at will.They can participate in the court of the manor lord, but cannot appeal to the king's court.Although they have a certain freedom, they are still restricted, and they cannot leave the manor without the consent of the lord.They also had specific obligations to the lord, and they were not so much attached to the lord as to the land.

The obligations of the tenants The tenants are also divided into grades, and there are regulations in the manor that each tenant has to pay money, objects and labor for the land he gets.In terms of money, he pays a small fixed rent and certain taxes.As for the real goods, one must be handed over for every twelve chickens raised, one for every dozen eggs, and one pound for every ten pounds of honey.In terms of labor, his burden was much heavier, and he had to work for the lord perhaps half of the year.In addition, they may be called upon to undertake additional work during harvest or other busy farming seasons.What's more, the tenant slaves had to do all the transportation in the estate.Sometimes, they have to move the goods to a place a hundred miles away.Trimming plowshares, fences, digging ditches, shearing wool, and other chores were performed by tenant slaves.

Medieval farming methods In the Middle Ages, small livestock were mostly used for farming, and crops were sparsely planted.At the same time, the livestock in the manor graze freely on the public pastures, which seriously affects the improvement of livestock breeds.Bulky plows and other crude agricultural implements were inadequate for the plains and cultivated crops.Commonly used agricultural tools are wooden, and generally do not have iron points, so the work is laborious and time-consuming.Seeds are sown by hand, and people don't know how to apply chemical fertilizers and don't know how to use crop rotation.As a result, half or a third of the arable land is left unused every year.

The manor is an economic unit. Although the farming is backward, the farm tools are simple, the livestock are short, the people are ignorant, stick to the rules, there is not enough to eat, and the wars are chaotic and turbulent, but these have not shaken the status of the manor as an economic unit.The so-called economic unit means that all food, clothing, tools and other economic goods can be independently produced in the manor.Each estate has a mill, a bakery, a winery or a grape press, and some shops.Among these sharecroppers, in addition to farmers, there were craftsmen such as blacksmiths, millers, brewers, and weavers.In addition, there are administrators who supervise the affairs of the manor on behalf of the lord, that is, the steward;Every village had a church and a priest who was not only the preacher of the community but also the teacher, and usually the priest was friends with the lord and the sharecropper.

Generally speaking, the life of farmers is extremely difficult and extremely monotonous, both free farmers and serfs.They go out to work early in the morning every day, and return home to rest when the sun goes down. Day after day, year after year, their lives have not changed.Farmers rarely use candles because their roofs are made of straw, which is easily destroyed by fire.In order to prevent the fire from destroying their houses and villages, there are no stoves or fireplaces at home, and cooking and baking are usually concentrated on a safe small stove.Therefore, in winter, farmers' houses have no heating equipment, are cold and desolate, and the living facilities are very simple.Because farmers do not have good cooking conditions and cannot master various cooking techniques, their daily diet is very simple and rough.Usually the whole family's laundry is done by women. They take the clothes to the river or pond for washing, which cannot be sterilized or controlled. As a result, smallpox, cholera, typhoid and other diseases often occur.The birth rate was very high at that time, but the death rate was also extremely alarming, especially for infants and young children. It was not easy to survive, so that in medieval Europe, the agricultural population had hardly increased for many years.

The isolated castle is obvious. The castle of the feudal lord is in much better condition than the ordinary farmhouse, and the interior has a fireplace, so it is warmer.However, most of the buildings in the castle have thick and high walls, and each window is small and narrow, and it is almost closed and isolated from the outside environment.Therefore, the internal environment of the castle is very depressing, dark, humid and gloomy all year round.Compared with today's living environment, even the luxurious castles at that time were in rather simple conditions.Because there were no electric lights, bathrooms, telephones, etc. in the castle at that time, not even decent lighting equipment.Also, there were no sewing machines in the castle, so the women spent most of their time sewing clothes by hand.The lord's family and guests enjoy fine food and clothing, and have more leisure time than peasants can match.But one thing is that the nobles, like the peasants, have no interesting recreational activities, and they are not interested in reading and studying knowledge.Many lords were better at wielding swords than pens, and many noblewomen were skilled in embroidery and sewing, but they were incapable of reading books.

On the positive side, life in the Middle Ages can almost be said to be shrouded in darkness, but its brightest and most positive side is the outdoor activities.Farmers can enjoy the colorful outdoor life on weekdays, while the nobles in the castle often hold grand celebrations, feasts on festivals and anniversaries, and sports competitions full of laughter and laughter.Whenever these activities are held, a strong flame burns blazingly in the large fireplace, wrapping all the faint candlelight in light, and music, dancing, and joyful singing echo in the hall and corridor.Especially the festive occasions, such as Christmas and Easter, farmers are also free to participate in these large feasts.

The parish chapel is usually the social center of the people, and all the villagers come here to worship every week, and everyone gathers together, greets each other, and exchanges friendly feelings.In addition, although the rural life of the medieval feudal manor has many shortcomings and unsatisfactory aspects, compared with the farm life of ancient Rome and ancient Egypt, the living conditions are much better and the living standard has also improved.For example, there was almost no slavery in feudal farms. Everyone had the right to personal freedom and certain property rights. Even serfs also enjoyed some personal freedom and property. People were generally respected and had certain social status.Although there was a huge class gap between lords and tenants, belonging to very different social classes, they were all Christians.Therefore, they can maintain their personal and independent status to communicate.The feudal manor is a social group that emphasizes cooperation. Every freeman, tenant farmer or serf, like their lord, owns a piece of land of their own in the manor and has a say in the use and management of the land.From this point of view, a certain idea of ​​agricultural democracy was conceived in the depths of the medieval manor.

[-]. Towns and trade
Old and new towns in the Dark Ages, the population and size of towns and cities decreased sharply, which became a clear sign of the Dark Ages.During the Middle Ages, urban activities became more and more prosperous, social life flourished again, and it was more lively than before. This is a remarkable feature of the development of medieval cities and towns.

The ancient town did not continue to decline, but regained its former vitality and prospered day by day.And new towns also gradually appeared, developing into centers of business and trade exchanges.Many cities in the Middle Ages, especially those in southern Europe, are mostly left over from the ancient Roman period, such as Rome, Naples, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Marseille, Lyon, Cologne, Mainz, London, York, etc. They are all An ancient city with a rich history.Although the city of Venice has experienced countless hardships, it still shines brightly like a jewel in the rough history.Venice was built in the 6th century when the Lombards invaded and many exiled people in Italy fled to the marshes at the end of the Adriatic Sea.There are many hidden islands, and people built a settlement on the spot, which gradually evolved into the city of Venice.There are also parts of the Netherlands, central and northern Germany, and many cities in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, mostly built during the Dark Ages, and some were built by kings and feudal lords in the early Middle Ages.

There are various reasons for the emergence and rise of new towns.When the king needs to build a capital city, a new city rises; sometimes a frontier fortress needs to be built, so another town appears; or a bishop comes to stay in a certain place, and the Christian church needs to build a Religious assembly centers, and new towns emerged.In addition, the location of the city is mostly a place where trade activities flourish, and people from different feudal manors gather there to trade goods with merchants.Sometimes, a certain castle actively promotes the development of handicraft manufacturing and trade, and its surrounding areas and even the nearby countryside will be affected, gradually becoming prosperous and lively, and slowly growing into a city.In many ancient cities and towns in Europe, we can still see some ancient castles, and some castles are even built on high cliffs.These castles may have been only manor houses at the time. Because the location was suitable for the development of handicrafts and commerce, the castles, together with the nearby villages, gradually evolved into cities.

Towns and Feudalism Most towns in the Middle Ages were part of a large feudal network, and they were an important part of it.Some towns are fiefs of bishops, some are fiefs of kings or emperors, and some are fiefs of nobles such as dukes, earls, and barons.The lord of the city has a high status, but he may also be a vassal of the king or bishop.In addition, the large city itself may become the suzerain of several other small cities.Only a few cities, like Italy mentioned above, have always maintained their independence, and they are not bound by the shackles of feudal contract.

City autonomy Many cities in the Middle Ages were the seat of bishops, and naturally became the center for bishops to manage religious affairs.Some cities have built strong and solid defensive cities, and the citizens have armed forces. They have repeatedly blocked the invasion and attack of barbarians, so they are respected by emperors, kings and other feudal lords, and they have obtained a large degree of "local autonomy" privileges .A feudal contract between a municipality and a lord, often called a "charter," detailing the terms of the rights and obligations of both parties. The "charter" provides a certain guarantee and basis for the management and commercial development of the city.Medieval cities and towns not only increased rapidly in number, but also gradually expanded their territory, and their importance and influence continued to increase. They gradually developed into manufacturing and trade exchange centers, and at the same time became gathering places for political activities and social democratic forces.

Trade Revival Commercial trade has been in a very important position as early as the ancient Greek and Roman times, but after entering the dark age, trade exchanges were destroyed, business development was hindered, and gradually declined.In the Middle Ages, the entire European region showed a clear trend of Christianization, and the degree of civilization was increasing day by day. The war of barbarian invasion was almost terminated, and commerce and trade were revived.In fact, most of the medieval manors and feudal lands were self-sufficient.Even so, there are still many kinds of goods that need to be obtained through exchange and trade, and some goods are very scarce and have to be shipped from far away.For example, pig iron is not produced in every place, but it is extremely needed everywhere.There are also spices and salt, which can effectively preserve meat from spoilage, but these things have to be purchased from merchants who sell them everywhere.In addition, saddles, reins, trolleys, four-wheeled wagons, swords and weapons, helmet armor and other items are also difficult to produce by themselves and need to be exchanged for purchase.In addition to these necessities of life, many well-off lords and their families do not like the rough clothes, woolen clothes, and heavy shoes produced by their own estates. They long for more luxurious and exquisite clothing, fine and exquisite handwork, and ornate jewelry.The same is true of the vassals who are fastidious in life, preferring to spend a lot of money on beautiful and luxurious clothes.Priests and monks in the diocese also needed a lot of liturgical books, lamp oil, wine and incense, etc. Most of these items needed to be imported from other places.

Barriers to trade There was no safe and convenient means of transportation in the Middle Ages, and the backward and harsh transportation conditions seriously hindered the development of commerce.At that time, there were no means of communication such as telegraphs and telephones, and there were no means of transportation such as railways and trucks. Postal services were extremely rare, and the roads were extremely rough and in poor condition, and often dangerous.Only water transportation is relatively developed, but unfortunately, rivers are usually closed, so they cannot be freely navigated.For the transportation of goods on land, every time a feudal nobleman passed through a manor, the feudal nobleman would charge heavy taxes to it.Even bridges, ferries, villages and castles have tolls.There are many checks and obstacles in this way. Every businessman who travels alone is very hard and strenuous, and it is impossible to go very far.Therefore, businessmen unite to form a powerful organization, which can not only improve the bad business situation, but also protect their own interests.

Merchant guild In the Middle Ages, this kind of union of merchants was called "merchant guild". treatment.These benefits seem insignificant now, but they were of great help to the businessmen at that time.On the way merchants traveled, they were usually harassed by barons, who treated them like robbers.Of course, in that era of frequent wars and turmoil, no defense measures would work.

The trade of craft guilds promoted the formation of merchant guilds, and the manufacturing industry also gave birth to "craft guilds".In other words, it promotes the development of artisan workers and local small businessmen.Every large town must have butchers, bakers, candlemakers, brewers, etc., and every town has its guilds of weavers, watchmakers, swordmakers, armorers, and silversmiths.

The official members of each craft guild have a common name called "Xingdong".His identity and status are a bit complicated.He can be a shopkeeper and a skilled worker; he can be a capitalist because he has a large number of commercial resources; and he can be a laborer because he participates in the manufacture of products.He manufactures from the raw materials he buys.There are many sales channels for finished products. They can be sold in their own workshops, at stalls in the town market, or at nearby markets.In addition, he can also sell products to other places and be purchased by the town chamber of commerce.Because the machine production conditions were very backward at that time, almost all of his products were made by hand, and very few products were made by machines.

Xingdong is not fighting alone, sometimes his wife and children will give him temporary help, and Xingdong will also recruit some apprentices and helpers for his guild.Both apprentices and helpers are teenagers. Apprentices are learning to do business, and helpers are young people who have completed their studies. Perhaps for some reason, they do not yet have the ability to open their own shops.

They are called apprentices, but they have no freedom. They have to work and obey Xingdong's orders.In a sense, they are actually a kind of serfs of the masters. Serfs are different from slaves because they can get safety and guarantee of life.Helpers are different from apprentices in terms of benefits. Not only can they get wages, but they are also more independent, and can travel in any town without hindrance.But before he got married and started a business, it was impossible to be recognized by the owner. He had to wait until he got married and started a business before the craft guild would accept him as the official owner.

In general, the son of Xingdong will inherit his father's craftsmanship, but there are exceptions.For example, a shoemaker's son could go to work as a candlemaker, baker, watchmaker, cloth merchant, etc., and it is also possible to apprentice to other tradesmen.

The most satisfying place to buy and sell goods in the Middle Ages was the bazaar.There are two types of bazaars, one is a market held at a designated place at a specified time, and the other is a regular market.The first category is generally a relatively large market, the goods come from all over the world and the variety is very complete.Merchants from various places also gather here.Until now, there are still some cities in Europe named after this kind of market.

Life in the town The medieval town was very backward, so the life of the residents was very difficult, far less comfortable and convenient than the modern metropolis.The streets here are not only narrow and winding, but also smelly and dirty.The tall buildings on both sides are made of wood, which is not subject to wind and rain, and is easy to get wet. The houses are also dark and messy.The protruding parts of the upper eaves of the buildings blocked the sunlight, and there was almost no light. The whole street was as dark as a feudal castle.The streets that have just been repaired are covered with uneven, large and small cobblestones.Pedestrians walking on these stone roads, whether they are coachmen, coachmen or pedestrians, are crowded together, quicken their pace, and dodge, as if the dark streets are full of suffocating magic.If the weather is fine during the day, there will be a glimmer of light through that small piece of glass, so one can imagine how dark the night will be here.

During the day, many people gather to chat, and it is a bustling and busy scene.But at night, when so many people get together to drink, the town turns into a cellar door or an alley beer shop.In terms of water supply, some relatively backward towns still use the cisterns and aqueducts of the ancient Roman era, and some use the water pumps and water pumps left in the countryside. Town residents often encounter epidemics, plagues and fires, etc. , Enduring all kinds of disasters like rural people.

Medieval cities were well-defended, often with tall walls and strong soldiers.Despite this, very few cities were able to defend themselves from outside raids.To make matters worse, there will be strife and armed confrontation among some groups within the city walls.It was not easy for people in the Middle Ages to live a stable life. All kinds of disputes filled their daily life. Fights between craft guilds, competitions between political groups, and hatred in the family era all threatened people's lives.Everyone longs for a stable life, and has made great efforts for a stable life.At night, they tried their best to illuminate the street with indoor lights, and some citizens spontaneously formed a security inspection team, which took turns on duty every day.Even so, still can not stop the evil deeds of thieves.All this terrifies people, and it is indeed an extremely dangerous thing to walk alone at night without arms.

In spite of this, people in rural areas yearn for life in the city, because the city has a unique charm that attracts them.Ordinary people can do what they like as they please. If he is rich, he can get more and better things in the city, and his life will be more colorful. The things around him are so fresh and interesting, but the most attractive It is also the rights and obligations enjoyed by urban citizens.

[-]. Mind and Hands
The purpose of cooperation During the Middle Ages, the principle of cooperation has clearly appeared in social life, although it is only simple cooperation.Family cooperation between parents and children is the most basic and smallest unit of cooperation.They cooperate with each other and handle household chores together.The father worked in the farmland or in the shop, and the boy assisted the father; the mother sewed clothes and did housework, and the girl helped the mother.

Family cooperation exists not only in rural areas, but also in big cities. All kinds of work must be centered on the family and start from the household.Young people are not qualified to be tenants, freemen, or hosts until they become heads of households.If you want to become the head of the household, you must first get married and establish a stable family.The family is the economic unit of society, an educational institution of great significance, and a contractual institution with the highest religious arbitration power.

The manor is a unit with a high cooperative nature in agricultural labor and life.Families living together in the same village work together in the same way on public woodlands, pastures, and cultivated land, and the manor represents their common ownership and joint action rights.The larger cooperative units in the town are chambers of commerce and craft guilds.Families living together made their rules and worked together in the same way, and the chambers and guilds represented the combined actions of those families.

The limited loyalties of the family, estates, guilds, and towns are antithetical to wider allegiances, and even more so to the growth of national patriotism.A German serf may be very loyal to his family, lord, and estate.The Italian artisan may also be extremely loyal to his family, guild, and city.However, neither the German serfs nor the Italian artisans had a sense of the country as a whole.Loyalty is local, not national, it is limited.

The Christian ideal The Christian faith binds all families of Central and Western Europe to each other and unites them in a common social life.The representative institution of Christianity is the Christian church. The duty of the church is to teach people, explain and implement the proverbs of Jesus. It is required not only to obey the proverbs in the public life of the community, but also to practice the proverbs in the private life of each person.While most people don't always practice the Christian faith, it's still the Christian ideal.

Business Ethics In business life, it is the duty of Christians to provide good quality work and fair trade, and prohibit money lending for interest.When a craftsman sells goods, he should only accept the cost of the raw materials plus the reasonable wages of himself and his assistants. He will be condemned for asking for more than a fair price, and he will be condemned for using an insufficient measure.

Christian charitable churches are mainly engaged in the relief of the poor. They have established shelters for orphans and widows, homes for the blind, leprosy hospitals, mental hospitals and other hospitals, and have long managed and developed such institutions.The monastery has set up a relief worker, who is responsible for the church's charity.He said: "Prudence must be exercised in distributing relief items, and the greatest care must be given to lepers, beggars, and tourists who are in dire need of relief." The elderly and infirm.In the monastery, he was usually in charge of the affairs of the sick room, and was also responsible for distributing leftovers and monks' worn clothes.During the Christmas season, he gave many gifts to orphaned children, including socks and other items he had accumulated.

Hospitality in the Abbey Hospitality is both a virtue and an obligation.The bishop, and all the priests and monks of the diocese, took it for granted that they paid for board and lodging of travelers and strangers.In addition to the houses of the monastery, each monastery provides a set of dormitories equipped with kitchens, dining halls, etc. for tourists.The parishioners personally minister to them and send a full-time staff to meet their needs.If the guest is an ordinary believer (a proper term, referring to ordinary believers in Christianity), as long as he can get paid through work to pay for his own board and lodging expenses, he can stay indefinitely.Thus the medieval monastery combined farmhouses, schools, inns, and charitable institutions, and although some of the measures of charity were not sensible, they did supplement social life in a way that no other social group could really do. real needs.

Knights and knighthood The rise of knighthood originated from church civilization, and its popularity stemmed from the influence of church elegance.That is to say, religion has penetrated into the warriors, instilling Christian ideals into the armored warriors, making them noble, so the knight system has become the flower of feudalism.Candidates for knighthood must be Christians, and more importantly, they must be very brave, keep their promises, be loyal to the church and the lord, and be dedicated to the cause of protecting the weak, especially women and orphans.The status of knight can be awarded on the battlefield, but this honorable status is more often granted during grand church festivals such as Christmas or Easter.

During the conferring ceremony, the knight candidate must first accept the priest's blessing on the sword.All night prayers and vigils must also be held in church before the canonization ceremony.Then the next day, take an oath to the priest at the altar, and the priest will bring him a sword and accept the palm of the priest. present".

These words summarize the connotation of chivalry, which means that all actions of knights must be honorable and respectable, because honor is the soul of chivalry, and it is the spiritual connotation endowed by Christianity to the feudal system.

Beauty and Mystery Every city in the Middle Ages has a magnificent cathedral with magnificent decoration, solemn etiquette, and sublime and moving music.In addition, there are many magnificent and exquisite churches.For example, the works of art preserved in rural churches present a variety of beauty and mystery in the liturgy.It shows that the buildings at that time had exquisite artistic decoration, such as the guild halls of merchant guilds and craft guilds, the municipal buildings of the town hall, and the magnificent houses of nobles and priests (bishops and abbots). Comparable to city churches.

The parish church, especially in the countryside, is the creator and advocate of social life.During naming ceremonies, weddings, confirmation ceremonies and funerals, the church's solemn and solemn ceremonies deeply touched the inner world of the young and old, and inspired their high spirits.The church's well-designed programs such as dinners, fasting, and holy days and holidays deeply touch the hearts of all the people. In times of anxiety and crisis, they encourage them to do their daily work well and improve people's physical and mental health.

(End of this chapter)