A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century
Chapter 17 Medieval Government
Chapter 17 Medieval Government
[-]. Political chaos
Contrasted with modern countries Today, we are quite familiar with the major countries of the world, such as France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and the United States.The governments of various countries have achieved strict laws and stable societies.The government generally delegates the power of some affairs such as religion to individuals to handle freely, while education, medical care, etc. are handled by relevant government personnel.In medieval Europe, however, the situation was very different.
A political patchwork map If one were to draw a map of European politics in the early Middle Ages, one would have to show not just a few advanced democracies, such as France, Italy, and Germany, but hundreds or thousands of them. Small details such as duchies, counties, city-states and episcopal states.
For example, France has the principalities of Normandy, Burgundy, Bourbon, Guyenne, and Gascony, as well as the counties of Paris, Angers, Poitiers, Blois, Artois, and Vallot.Italy has the duchies of Savoy and Milan, city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Florence, and Siena, the pope's bishopric state, and the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples (the famous "Two Sicilies").Germany has the duchies of Bavaria, Austria, Saxony, Silesia, and Luxembourg; the counties of Württemberg and Tyrol; the princes of Brandenburg and Lusatia; Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Bishop states of Strasbourg, Münster, Utrecht, Magdeburg and Salzburg; Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Latisben, Nuremberg, Worms, Frankfurt Wait for the city-state.
The above list is only a small fragment of the patchwork territory of European politics in the early Middle Ages.Among these fragments, some are very large, others are small, including republics, monarchies, and aristocratic states.
The State and the "Hierarchy" Feudal forms prevailed at the time.The most common medieval country was a duchy or county consisting of the manors of the vassal lords and some towns.The head of state—the duke or earl—generally sets up his castle in the capital and listens to politics here.There was also usually a force of feudal knights and mercenaries and a parliament representing the opinions of the "estates" in the country.
"Classes" "Classes" here means all social classes.Among them, priests are the highest class, nobles are second in comparison, and others are often collectively referred to as the third class.
With the consent of the "levels," each feudal suzerain could promulgate laws, collect taxes, mint coins, declare wars with other states, conclude treaties, govern territories, and try cases at court.
The history of most medieval feudal states is messy and uninteresting, always repeating the same mistakes there.However, the times have been advancing, and change has finally appeared.
Kings and kingdoms In the feudal countries of the Middle Ages, some kings won victories. For example, Britain and France merged many duchies and counties into a unified nation-state.But in some countries, such as Italy and Germany, the dukes and counts divided the country into many parts and had many independent cities.
This chapter plans that the analysis of the feudal system in the previous chapter can help us better understand this patchwork map.This chapter will further describe how the kings established feudal countries in their territories. The following will first introduce the church and the Holy Roman Empire.
[-]. Church and State
In medieval Europe, the Christian church was probably the most powerful.The relationship between the bishop and the king is also intricate, sometimes maintaining a close relationship, and sometimes facing each other with swords.
Church System As far as we know, the supreme leader of the Western Christian Church is the Pope, the bishop in Rome.The Christian Church divides the countries where the church is located into archdiocese, diocese and diocese.The archdiocese is the highest division, generally covering a very vast area, and the highest status in the archdiocese is called the archbishop or archbishop.A diocese is part of a large diocese governed by a bishop.The diocese is a small part of the bishopric, and each diocese will only have one church. The diocese geographically includes the town or village where the worshipers who come to the church are located.In each diocese there will be a priest who is responsible for presiding over the mass and administering the sacraments, and in some important dioceses there may be assistant priests and priests to help the priest.Priests such as archbishops, bishops, priests, and priests are collectively called lay priests.Because they live and work in this world, they are called lay priests.
Regular priests Regular priests include monks, beggar monks, and nuns. They have separated from secular life and work, and live according to certain religious regulations.
There are the following types of regular priests: (1) The monks and nuns of the church live in the designated monasteries for men and women respectively. (2) Crusader orders, such as the Knights Templar or the Teutonic Knights that appeared in the 12th century, were organized by the church in accordance with the military system. (3) Mendicant monks, or begging monks.The original beggar monks did not have a fixed residence, but just wandered around and lived on people's relief, so they were called "begging" or "begging".Their main job is to preach to people.These mendicant monks began to emerge in the 13th century, and the most famous of them are the "Franciscan" monks and the "Dominican" monks.The former imitated Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), who mainly preached humility and friendliness to those living in poverty; the latter were followers of Dominique (1170-1221), who inspired the enthusiasm of the beggar monks to preach .
Many regular priests have taken vows to live in poverty, celibacy, and obedience to the teachings.In the Middle Ages, the monks and friars of the church were highly educated, and many great scholars were friars or friars.Many regular priests also joined secular church organizations, and some became bishops or even popes.
The Church in the Government Initially, the main role of the church was to guide and regulate people's religious life.But with the expansion of people's desires and the lack of effective management of government laws in the dark ages of the Middle Ages, the church directly led to many other things.As one can see, monasteries began to accommodate travelers as there were not enough facilities.Because of the lack of public schools, the church took on the task of educating the children.As time went by, the church became more and more proficient in administrative management, and its status in people's minds became higher and higher.Later, the church even had a complete legal system called canons.
The courts of the church heard not only cases concerning priests, but also cases involving marriage, blasphemy and inheritance disputes among lay people.Many bishops and abbots became feudal suzerains, who ruled vast areas and exercised the powers of legislation, coinage, and taxation in their respective areas.The pope became the supreme ruler of the entire Roman region and occupied an important place in medieval politics.
Barbarism was a problem In the Middle Ages, the legacy of the Dark Ages still plagued the Church.Although the barbarians who had been heathen had been converted, and their descendants were in the process of civilisation, the great mass of the people remained ignorant.Especially those feudal aristocrats who were militant with a Christian halo on their heads. In fact, they were not much better than the barbarians.Until the 10th century, the church was still trying to teach such warriors not to break into the church and hurt monks, let alone fight on religious festivals.In other words, neither "God's peace" nor "God's truce" meant much to these savage warriors.
Feudalism is a threat For the feudal lords of that era, the rich estates owned by the church were almost an irresistible temptation.They sometimes seized church lands by force, but more often they attempted to control church property by attempting to elect their confidants and relatives to teaching positions.Since the abbots and bishops were suzerains of vast lands, they derived substantial income from them.Thus ambitious feudal suzerains, and even kings and emperors, were constantly trying to place their own men in the priesthood, even though these men were often devoid of piety and sometimes even immoral.In the 10th and early 11th centuries, such things even affected the selection of popes.
On the one hand, there are always some people trying to get rich by bribing themselves or their relatives to be elected to the teaching position.This practice was reviled by the reformers, who indignantly called it "simony" because they believed that it was similar to Simon Machu's attempt to buy the power of the Holy Spirit with money and was punished by the apostles. The events of Peter's severe reprimand are very similar.On the other hand, it involves the celibacy of priests, that is, the stipulation that priests are not allowed to marry.Celibacy has not always existed in the church, but was vigorously promoted by popes and synods in Western Europe in the 4th and 5th centuries.But this rule was often violated, especially by secular aristocrats who obtained teaching positions through political influence or the "Simon style".
Cluny and the Reformation For these abuses, the monks held a large number of activities to oppose, especially the French Cluny monks.The Cluniac reform movement not only spread throughout Europe, but was also supported by several emperors.
Electoral College of Cardinals In the middle of the 11th century, the pope, who was full of reform spirit, took the lead in the movement against the phenomenon of "Simonism" and the political control of the church, and at the same time opposed the marriage of priests. In 1059, Pope Nicholas II issued an order: After that, the emperor or the aristocratic families in Rome could not nominate the Pope, but instead elected by a combination of bishops, priests and ecclesiastics in Rome.This method of selection intends to place better people in positions in the church, so that they will have more independence and will not be influenced by outsiders.This electoral body came to be known as the "Cardinal" Electoral College.
Hildebrand Pope Gregory VII, also known as Hildebrand, was the greatest reformer of the 11th century.He is a man of sincerity, integrity and fearlessness.His zeal and energy rivaled that of the prophet Elijah.While he was working on strengthening the power of the church, he clashed with Emperor Henry IV about the sealing of tin.Gregory forbade any secular ruler to tin seal clerics, not even kings or emperors, who were only allowed to confer rings and staffs on clergy as symbols of theocracy.
Henry and Canossa A storm of protest against Hildebrand's reforms was brewing, especially in Germany and northern Italy.The emperor refused to obey Hildebrand's orders and tried to depose the pope.Gregory retaliated by excommunicating the emperor, trying to expel him from the church.Before long, Henry found himself facing a German rebellion.Panicked, he hurried to Italy to meet the Pope and beg his forgiveness.In the castle of Canossa in the snow-covered Apennines, the pope made the emperor stand barefoot in the courtyard in the rough clothes of a penitent for three days.The Pope then forgave him and accepted him back into the Church.The Pope's purpose in doing this is to make an example of others and to teach other despotic rulers a lesson.This is the more famous event that took place in 1077.But Henry didn't keep his promise, and the conflict broke out again, this time involving feudal lords, and Germany was plagued by civil war for many years.In that chaos, Gregory VII was expelled from Rome, and finally died in exile in 1085.Before he died, he once said, I love justice and hate crime, so I died in exile.
Years after the Worms Religious Agreement, in 1122, the reforms Gregory was striving for were finally realized in the Worms Religious Agreement.The treaty of the agreement agreed with Gregory in some respects that only the pope and his deputies could tin a bishop or other cleric with a ring or staff.
After Innocent III's conflict in Sifeng was resolved, the authority of the Pope was elevated, claiming supreme power.In Innocent III (1198-1216), the Pope's influence was at its greatest, when he declared that although "princes had earthly powers," the clergy had a higher power, because the clergy were the rulers of the souls of men.This was the ambition of Innocent III, who wanted the pope to be the supreme ruler and monarch of all Christian countries.Of all his political achievements, the most famous was his victory against the King of England, who opposed his appointment of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Catbury.
The Spiritual Foundation The real strength of the church lies not in its politics but in the faith of its members in its divine mission.What the Church claims and is acknowledged is that the Church is the eternal foundation established by Jesus Christ for the preaching of his Gospel, the administration of the sacraments, and the eternal happiness of men in eternal life.
Heretics and the Inquisition In Medieval Europe, heretics were always viewed with anger and horror, and sometimes even executed them. In the 13th century, people also established a special court system to try heretics.This system is historically known as the "Inquisition".Although Jews were not tried as heretics and were allowed to keep their churches and priests, there was always a lot of prejudice against them.In addition, a series of Crusades were fought against Muslims.
Religious intolerance was no greater tragedy in the Middle Ages.Christians forget that their founder was a victim of intolerance and taught tolerance.For them, intolerance has become an inherited trait that is hard to let go because it fits with their strong beliefs and passions.And intolerance of one kind or another has not completely disappeared even in our own time.Our so-called religious freedom is only a seemingly advanced but in fact incomplete achievement.
[-]. Empire
The Revival of Rome Throughout the long history, what comes into view is that the Western Empire in the feudal period was a new country rather than a direct continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and it just continued to use an expanded old name.In 800 AD, Charlemagne was crowned "Emperor of Rome" by Pope Leo III.However, there was a period of time when there was no emperor in the West. In order to strengthen the ruling power of the church, King Otto of Germany was crowned the "Holy Roman Empire" by Pope John.According to this ideal, the Empire must rule over all Christian kingdoms like the Catholic Church.Therefore, the church that dominates the spiritual realm also requires the empire to dominate the political realm.The feudal empire insisted that it was the real ruler of the ancient Christian Roman Empire, so it called itself the "Holy Roman Empire".
The Holy Roman Empire Germania, the Netherlands, Bohemia (Czechoslovakia), Austria, Switzerland, Burgundy, and most of Italy are all within the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire.But the west of France, England, Spain, the Scandinavian countries, and Hungary were not ruled by it.
Kingdom of Germany The Kingdom of Germany was ruled by Otto I and his successors, and the empire after Otto was actually split from the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun, which originated in 843.Otto was above all the most important German king, and his successors thereafter were, under normal circumstances, "Holy Roman Emperors."But things are often unexpected.
If these successors had only devoted their energies to governing their own country, they might have achieved a strong and prosperous nation-state long ago, just like England and France.However, they fantasize about the future and deviate from the actual track.Due to the expansion of personal ambitions and the temptation of ancient honorary titles, as well as the urging of the Pope, they attempted to rebuild the ancient, prestigious and enduring Roman Empire on the basis of the German Kingdom, but they failed miserably.Due to the fragmentation of Germany, the broken country has not achieved real unity. They only have the false name of empire, and everything else has disappeared, leaving only the shadow of history.
The head of the empire elected by the emperors and princes was known as the "King of Germany" or "King of the Romans" until he was crowned by the Pope.After the coronation, he is the supreme and inviolable "Roman Emperor".The emperor always tried to get his own son elected "king" while he was alive, so that his family's descendants would have priority in succession to the throne.If things go on like this, the title of emperor will be passed down from father to son.
According to theoretical logic, it is speculated that the emperor who holds great power is the heir of Constantine and Theodosius.But in fact, he is not as powerful and invincible as imagined. There is not much difference between the feudal lord and him, except that he can obtain a certain amount of material wealth from his own estate or persuade and deter vassals to give him a little bit of authority. .However, his vassals were also careful not to let the emperor surpass himself too much and dominate himself, lest he would bow down and let him "slaughter" after losing power.
Throughout history, we can see that some vassals (princes) have important voting rights and can elect the "King of Germany", so they are known as "Electors" or "Electors".The number of electors varied from era to era, but in 1356, the famous decree of the "Golden Seal Edict" was issued, legally electing seven. "Bulla" is just an abbreviation of the Latin word "bulla," but it was a popular term for a decree or document bearing a seal at the time.Because the seal was placed in a gold box, the decree was called "Golden Seal Edict".According to the seven electors stipulated in the "Golden Seal Edict", they are: the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the Earl of the Rhine with royal power, the Duke of Saxony and Brandenburg Marquis.
Free cities In the Holy Roman Empire, some cities are very important, especially in the Rhine River Main River Valley in northern Italy, as well as some cities along the North Sea and Baltic Sea.They are valued by the emperor and princes, and have obtained some kind of franchise power, so they have a lot of autonomy and independence, so that they will become independent and split when they develop to a certain extent.When the German emperor had a large number of knights and barons, these cities theoretically became direct vassals of the emperor instead of being entrusted to the emperor, but in practice they were chaotic, greedy and martial, and did not obey any state Law Ji, often went out to plunder the traveling merchants outside the castle.Merchants and cities formed a united front against the bandit-like barons, while princes and cities formed an alliance and often fought against the emperor.The chaos and strife have essentially threatened the stability of the emperor's position and weakened the strength of the so-called powerful empire.In this case, if the emperor can still maintain order, it is indeed strong enough.
Parliament In the empire, a kind of parliament (Diet) was not elected by universal vote, and the parliament was attended by representatives elected by certain representative groups and classes with special status.In particular, it represents the will and defends the vested interests of the Electors, Bishops, Barons and Free Cities.The parliament was convened by the emperor and was often held in Frankfurt. The representatives of the parliament made some suggestions to the emperor and negotiated to safeguard his interests.However, the representatives cared more about their own special interests than general welfare, so the parliament did not play a role in assisting the emperor in handling national affairs or strengthening the power of the empire.
A series of quarrels between the imperial emperor and the feudal pope, especially the long-term quarrel over the ownership of the feudal rights, clearly exposed the fatal weakness of the empire and damaged its reputation. Among them, the humiliation Henry IV received in Canossa strongly illustrates all this.
Battle of Legnano 100 years after Canossa, the emperor Frederick I nicknamed Barbarossa ("Red Beard") fought a bitter struggle with Pope Alexander III for supremacy and thus Become the world overlord.Both were tough, and the quarrel got out of hand, and it developed into a fistfight between giants. Their quarrel came to a head in 1176, when the Lombard League in northern Italy joined the Pope in a united front and defeated the Emperor at the famous Battle of Legnano, a fatal blow to the power of the Empire. get weak. Fourteen years later, Barbarossa died during a crusade against the Muslims of the East.
The Council of Lyons, Frederick II, grandson of Barbarossa, the emperor, challenged the Pope.He vigorously expanded the power of the kingdom in Italy in order to annex the Papal States one day.After years of verbal criticism and sword-fighting, the emperor's army was finally driven out of Italy.In 1245, at the general church meeting held in Lyon, France, the emperor was deposed.Five years later, just like his fate, the empire also disappeared into the long river of history with him.
During the period from 1250 to 1273 in the Habsburg royal family, no one became the real emperor. In fact, even the electors had constant quarrels.But in 1273, they finally elected Rudolf from the Habsburg family.He was famous for having fought for himself and his family, capturing the Duchy of Austria.The Duchy of Austria was controlled by the Habsburg family until 1918.For half a century after Rudolph's death, the crown passed from one family to another.But after 1437, most of the "Holy Roman Emperors" were Habsburgs.In that era, the empire was nothing more than a ghost that haunted people's dreams all the time.But this ghost has been passed down to this day.
Some results First, the failure of the empire gave birth to many nation-states - Hungary, Poland, the Scandinavian states, France, Spain, England.Second, after the feudal melee that overthrew the empire, some powerful families emerged—the Habsburgs in Austria, the Wittelsbachs in Bavaria, and the Hohenzollern in Prussia.Again, the strong Germanic peoples in the Alpine valleys united, and in defiance of the feudal lords of the empire, they established several republics in Switzerland.A strong empire could have prevented such events, but its incompetence enabled the republic.In the end, due to the weakness of the empire and the failure of its rule, some cities in Germany and Italy gained independence one after another and established their own city-states.Industry, commerce, art, academia, liberal regimes, etc. all developed, and the city-state made great contributions to this.
[-]. City-state
During the Middle Ages, there were some large city-states in Germany, the Netherlands and northern Italy.In Western Europe, every important town has its own government, which is more valuable because it is partially independent than other governments.In different regions, towns have different development prospects, some can develop into truly free cities, while others gradually merge into nation-states.
Nation-state cities In some European countries, kings finally defeated feudal lords and established powerful centralized states.Examples: England, Fascism, Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary, Spain and Southern Italy.In these countries the municipality has always belonged to the sovereign and is dependent on the nation-state.But such towns were not devoid of liberty and power; they had their own royal masters, from whom they generally received a partial license to govern local affairs freely, as well as representation in the national parliament.
The towns of the free cities of Germany, the Netherlands, and northern Italy were able to break free from external constraints and develop into free cities because they were within the increasingly weakened and decaying empire.These cities are notable for their location as hubs of commerce between East and West, which has enabled their economies to flourish and their populations to grow.A thriving economy afforded citizens of the Free City plenty of leisure time, and the city grew into a center of art and learning.The freedom of the city gave citizens the opportunity to participate in politics, so bold and advanced measures of modern democratic politics were born from it.
The free city-states of the Middle Ages are very similar to those established by the ancient Phoenicians and Greeks.City-states such as Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan, Lübeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Danzig, Cologne, Bruges, and Ghent all had a certain number of villages, and generally had trading bases in distant areas.Each city-state is highly recognized by its citizens.A native of Florence or Danzig, for example, always first considers himself a Florentine or a Danzig, never an Italian or a German.
Of course, each free city has its own government, laws, courts, currency, and its own army.If it is a harbor city, it also has its own navy.Each city can form alliances, fight wars, and make treaties like a nation-state.
The story of the rise and fall of medieval city-states is much like the story of Athens, Corinth, Melet, and Rome, and their histories are remarkably similar.Most of their histories involve cities fighting against foreign powers, citizens rebelling against feudal lords for political rights, city-states fighting against rival cities or internal struggles over commercial interests, and conflicts for control of the government and its policies. Conflict stories between merchants and craftsmen, between rich and poor, between nobles and commoners, between ancient Roman nobles and ancient Roman commoners.
Venice In Venice, one of the most famous city-states of the Middle Ages, wealthy merchants dominated from the outset and formed a highly effective government long ago.An assembly composed of some of the Venetian nobles selected the magistrates and made the general laws.They set up a small senate to manage diplomacy and commerce, to declare war and negotiate peace.There was also a council of ten dedicated to monitoring public morals and detecting conspiracies against the government, it had the power to arrest and interrogate prisoners in secret, and it could sentence anyone to death.
The government of Venice is a republic, with the head of state elected from among the doge and the duke.The head of state is assisted by the cabinet, guides the work of the government, and has the power to command the army and navy.Venice prospered in the 12th and 13th centuries, thanks to its naval power and trade in the Crusader era.Similar to ancient Athens, it gradually developed into a maritime city-state.Venice's domain included the large islands of Cyprus and Crete.
Genoa The city of Genoa is located on the northwest coast of Italy and was a very famous city-state in the Middle Ages.Compared with Venice, Genoa's historical development is more tortuous and turbulent, the internal environment is very bad, and civil strife often occurs. In the 14th century, there was a governor in charge of Genoa, and finally passed a period of relative peace and stability.However, the good times didn't last long. The Genoese were very keen to expand foreign economic and trade, and tried their best to become the hegemony of the sea, so they continued to fight.In this respect, Genoa and Venice are very similar, and both were quite successful.Genoa competed with another city in Italy, Pisa. As a result of the war, Genoa won a big victory and gained the right to rule the islands such as Corsica and Sardinia.In addition, the Genoese actively participated in the Crusades, so like Venice, they gained some trading territories and strongholds in the eastern part of the Mediterranean.Since then, Genoa and Venice have launched a long-term struggle. In this protracted contest, Venice finally won, while Genoa gradually declined with the defeat.
Florence In the 12th century, Florence had become a republic, and the consuls were responsible for managing the country and were the main officials of the country.The nobles once firmly controlled the power of the government for a period of time, but the civilians in Florence did not accept it. They had independent thinking and were very rebellious. exert influence on the government.This is far more than Venice and Genoa.Even sometimes, the government of Florence can almost reach the level of complete democracy, but in the end it is controlled by a few wealthy big families, who actually become the "leaders" and power holders of Florentine democratic politics.The most famous of these families is the great banker Medici family, which flourished in the 15th century and evolved the family rule into hereditary, trying to become the dictator of Florence from generation to generation.Florence is the capital and important city of Tuscany, which is ancient Etruria.At that time, Florence was already a famous art center, and its reputation has continued to this day.
Milan Milan is located in Lombardy, and its status and influence in Lombardy is similar to that of Florence in Tuscany.Milan once had a semi-democratic government, and performed extremely well in the battle with Frederick Barbarossa, becoming an important leading member of the Lombard League. In 1176, the Lombard League completely defeated Frederick Barbarossa at Legnano.In 1262, the Visconti family rose up and successfully controlled the power of the Milan government, becoming the consul of Milan.The Visconti family ruled earlier than the Medici family in Florence.The Visconti family ruled Milan for 200 years.Over time and development, Milan slowly expanded into a duchy known as the Duchy of Milan, whose territory included most of Lombardy.To this day, Milan remains one of the wealthiest cities in Italy.
Other cities Many other cities in the Middle Ages also developed rapidly, becoming richer and more powerful, and at the same time possessing a long history and civilization.For example, the city of Bruges in the Netherlands is as important as Venice in Italy.The city of Ghent, which has been fighting against Bruges all the year round, is more like Genoa.In addition, many cities in Germany are also very important. They play a commanding role in the political affairs of the German Kingdom, and even have the power to interfere in the political affairs of the Holy Roman Empire.
City alliances Medieval cities often formed alliances to facilitate commercial trade and ensure their respective political and military security, so city alliances were very common at the time.Just like the members of the Lombard League united together, the main purpose is to protest the emperor's dictatorship and authority.Germany has a Hanseatic League, also known as the "Merchant's Guild", which is organized to protect the commercial exchanges and urban prosperity of the members of the alliance.The Hanseatic League was initiated in the 13th century, and its leader and founder was Lübeck.In its heyday, the Hanseatic League covered more than 70 cities. It held alliance meetings, organized and mobilized the army and navy to participate in the war, which greatly promoted the trade between members of Germany, and also promoted the economic and trade links between Germany and foreign countries. . In the 14th century, the Hanseatic League had established trade bases in England, Italy, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Russia and other places, and the development of the alliance reached its peak during this period.
Government Diplomacy In the Middle Ages, various city-states successively established various types of governments, including the establishment of municipal officials.There used to be a class of professional city officials in Italy, and members of the class specialized in serving as city officials to handle government affairs.Many practices and rules in modern diplomacy come from the management methods of city-states in the Middle Ages, especially the Italian cities have a great influence on later generations. In the 13th century, Venice produced a class of professional envoys, and made special regulations on the work of ambassadors. For example, ambassadors could not bring their wives to visit abroad, in case she leaked state secrets. It was also stipulated that ambassadors should bring their own cooks on missions. Foreign countries, to prevent being poisoned to death.
[-]. Nation-states
What do we mean by nation-state today?Generally speaking, a nation-state refers to a nation that uses the same language to form a national government. Its rights are not interfered and restricted by any foreign government. It has centralized power to a certain extent and has enough power to control the territory. any local government.
Around the 10th century, that is, the early Middle Ages, almost all governments in Europe were feudal and local in nature.There was no real nation-state at that time.By the 14th century, that is, the end of the Middle Ages, in the Holy Roman Empire, Germany, and the Italian city-states, the feudal system and localism still prevailed and became the mainstream political forces, but in other areas, nation-states were slowly gestating, quietly Rise.
Reasons for the rise of nation-states There must be internal and external reasons for the rise of nation-states, and some factors have had an important impact on it: (1) A certain language has distinctive features and is gradually becoming popular in a certain area; (2) The Christian church in England and Spain , Poland and other places have established some national regime systems, and these successful examples have had an impact on other regions; (3) Since the invasion of barbarian tribes, many barbarians have established kingdoms with the nature of nation-states; (4) Roman law has been revived, and in It spread widely in some regions, and Roman law especially emphasized the supremacy of the king's power, and its regional influence was great, not limited to a tribe of a single nation; (5) The development of the feudal system has provided evidence, and the national government really needs to obtain more Solid and centralized ruling power.
The establishment of a centralized nation-state means the victory of the struggle between the kings and the feudal lords for the right to rule.All early nation-states were monarchies, because the people yearned for a peaceful environment, hoped to live a safe and orderly life, and obtained opportunities to work and labor without being disturbed.Because of this, people willingly obeyed the king and endured heavy pressure and burdens under the rule of the totalitarian government.
[-]. England
The successful transformation of England into a nation-state is a long process, which has gone through several generations of struggle.Under the leadership of the Saxon Egbe, King Alfred, the Danish conquerors Schweigen and Canute, and the re-established Saxon Confessors Edward and Harold, the establishment of the nation-state was gradually realized .This story begins in the middle of the 11th century.The most radical change was in 1066, when William, Duke of Normandy, led his army across the English Channel, killed Harold in the war, conquered England, and completely reformed the centralization of government.
A Book and an Oath In 1086, William sent his officials to visit the various parts of England, known as William I or William the Conqueror, and demanded a detailed investigation of everyone's property. Land List.As long as he had this book at hand, the king could know how much tax each person should or could pay to the state.In the same year (1086) William asked certain landowners to come to Salisbury to meet him and swear allegiance only to him and against others.This put them under the direct control of the king, and even had to oppose their immediate superiors, the feudal lords. This is the well-known Salisbury oath.
Thus, William I succeeded in accomplishing two things in accordance with the Land List and the Salisbury Oath: (1) he demanded that taxes be collected on a warranted basis; (2) he shook the foundations of England's feudal system.Although there were still disputes between the king and the feudal lords, William laid a good foundation for the British nation-state with this book and the oath.And he set an example for the kings of that era, guiding them how to be a good king.
Language and Law William I brought to England two things that for a time hindered the development of a national and unified England: the Norman French language and Norman French law (that is, part of the old Roman law).Norman French was adopted by the English government as a symbol of conquerors.Latin is still used by the Church, while most of the people speak Anglo-Saxon.In this way, the English language appeared in due course, with three languages each accounting for a part, the main language being Anglo-Saxon.The laws of England are ultimately partly Norman French and partly Anglo-Saxon.
The successes and failures of Henry II About 100 years after the Normans conquered England, Henry II also had a fierce battle with priests and nobles.After a dark period of reign in England, Henry II came to the throne.During his reign, the baron ruled lawlessly, oppressed the people, and ran amok.Henry II had had many disputes with these barons, hoping to change the situation at that time, and finally forced them to submit.He tried in vain to compel the clergy who violated the laws of the king to come before the king's court as they had been tried in the ecclesiastical courts.The leading proponent of clerical privilege was Thomas Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury.The controversy raged for years until, in 117, the archbishop was murdered by a friend of the king.
However, instead of helping the status quo, the murder of the archbishop hindered the king's cause.Archbishops are honored and commemorated as martyrs.The king was forced to submit, held a penitential ceremony at Becket's tomb, and relinquished his denunciation of the clergy, which he had previously denigrated not of the clergy but of the nobles.
Juries and common law Henry II's most influential work was improving the courts, sending judges on regular tours of the country.Henry II also established the system of jurors, that is, to select honest people in each region to serve as jurors, after taking an oath, reporting crimes, and assisting judges in adjudicating cases.With this procedure, circuit courts and jurors, as well as customary law, are generally applied.Some local laws and old feudal laws were replaced by the king's laws and the judgments of the king's judges, making the law universal, that is, the same throughout the country.This was the former customary law in England, much of which was made by judges.Now when we refer to "customary law" we mean Old English law.Common law extends from England to all English-speaking countries.
Magna Carta The second major step in the development of the national government of England was the acquisition of liberty and a strong opposition to feudal absolutism. In 1215, the nobles who opposed the king, together with some bishops and some people of the middle class, forced Henry II's son, King John, to sign the Magna Carta, in which the king was forced to promise to respect their power.
King John also did two other important things that he was unwilling to do: (1) he became a vassal of the Pope - recognizing the Pope as the feudal suzerain of England; (2) he gave up some of his lands on the Continent And give it to the King of France.We remember King John for the great things he did that he didn't want to do.Perhaps he would not have conceded so much if he had not been under so much pressure, and even for a time all classes united against him.As for his death in 1216, it is not difficult to explain.
King John, the first House of Commons, lived long enough for him to violate or attempt to violate Magna Carta.His son and successor, Henry III, had a long and difficult reign (1216–1272), largely because they violated the Magna Carta.During the Civil War the barons were always trying to make him stick to the charter.The chief general of the barons was Simon Montfort, the king's brother-in-law. In 1265, after Henry's defeat and capture, Simon convened a council that turned out to be a new kind of council.At that time there was the old Privy Council composed of nobles, bishops and abbots, and Simon also summoned two knights from each county, and two citizens from each town, as new representatives of the people, to form the House of Commons, which is the House of Commons. beginning.The House of Commons together with that old body constituted Parliament.
129 years of the Model Parliament, King Edward I unexpectedly followed the lead of his uncle, Simon Montfort, by bringing the House of Commons into Parliament, a departure from the usual practice of his father Henry III and his grandparents.Since then, cities and towns in the state, county and below can send publicly elected representatives to attend and participate in national legislative activities together with bishops and nobles.Since the adjustment of the parliament is unprecedented and praised by people, it is known as the "model parliament" in the world.Overall, this is a major achievement for the English government.Another important achievement came in 1282.
Outside England In 1282, King Edward I conquered Wales.Then, in 1301, when rewarding his heirs, he gave the title of "Prince of Wales" to the future successor, and this new title was passed down in British history.In addition, this illustrious king was also enthusiastic about the conquest of Scotland, although only temporarily successful.In the following years, the king of England was ambitious and tried his best to expand his territory.Therefore, they aimed at neighboring France and wanted to annex it, and France was in jeopardy.
[-]. France
As we all know, according to the "Treaty of Versailles" in 843 AD, the original Charlemagne empire was divided, and its west was France, and most of the remaining area was ancient Frank.In 987 AD, the nobleman Hugues Capet inherited the throne of France.Centuries later, the throne is still handed down from generation to generation in this huge family.Since ancient times, the feudal system has been deeply rooted in France, far stronger than England.It is conceivable that kings living in different environments naturally have different personalities. The king of France has been suppressed for a long time, so he appears weaker in comparison.In other words, due to the special historical conditions of the country, France still has a long way to go towards national independence.
Philip Augustus Philip II (1180-1223), King of France, is commonly known as Philip Augustus.During his reign, he made many contributions to the strengthening of the French monarchy.For example, he abolished the custom of paying homage to beneficiary nobles, a drop in the ocean of his vast political career, of course. In 1214, France and England fought fiercely at Bouwens.As the supreme commander of France, Philip defeated King John with his outstanding military talent and wisdom, and recovered the colonies occupied by England in France, maintained territorial sovereignty, and weakened the feudal forces in northern and central France.Immediately afterwards, Philip reorganized and reformed the government. In order to prevent a resurgence, he replaced feudal officials with trusted agents.Throughout his life, he defeated the feudal system with brave and powerful force, excellent diplomatic means and strict legal means.
During his reign, the Albigensian Christians were frequently active in southern France, and the nobles regarded them as heresies, even thorns in their eyes and flesh.Even without Philip's support, they still waged a crusade against the Albigens.The struggle ended in a crushing defeat for the Count of Toulouse.After a few years, most of the south came under the crown.
Louis IX (1226-1270), the grandson of Philip II, was a model Christian king in the Middle Ages, and the church awarded him a very high honor-St. Louis.His only philosophy is: everyone is equal and treats people fairly.Because of his high personal reputation, coupled with rigorous and wise legislation, he effectively consolidated the French monarchy and made immortal contributions.During the two crusades against the Muslims, he won widespread acclaim and increased his popularity.But what is heartbreaking is that he died in the second crusade.
The handsome Philip Philip IV (1285-1314), the grandson of Louis IX, was born handsome and unrestrained, so he was nicknamed "Handsome".He is alert, resolute and decisive, often unscrupulous in order to achieve his goals, but he always succeeds.He was determined to strengthen the royal power, so he ordered the taxation of priests to fill the treasury, and tried the French bishops in the royal court.However, this move was strongly resisted by the Pope, who threatened to depose Philip and excommunicate him.Those who win the hearts of the people win the world. In order to win the people as their strong backing, Philip convened the French three-level conference.The so-called three levels, as the name suggests, are composed of three groups, namely bishops, nobles and commoners, and the representatives of the commoners will enter the third level in the future French history.
To the pope's surprise and anger, in the three-level conference, the bishops and the bishops sided with the king because they were eager to get rid of the church's excessive taxes. Good time for power.Their national sentiments are stirring in their hearts, one after another.It is conceivable that the elderly Pope Boniface VIII could not bear these oppression and humiliation, he could not calm down, became depressed and became ill, and soon passed away.Things went much smoother thereafter, and Philip chose a good friend to be pope, succeeding Boniface.Construction of the Pope's palace began in Avignon, France, and was soon completed and occupied.As of 1305, the pope lived in Avignon for 70 years, during which the teaching power was always suppressed by the king, and the king was powerful.
France became a nation-state in 1314, and Philip IV fulfilled his last wish in the last years of his life—all the feudal fiefs had been brought under the jurisdiction of the king, and the feudal forces were insufficient and gradually dying.In contrast, France finally bid farewell to the era of capital relocation, officially established its capital in Paris, and established its political center.After hundreds of years of struggle and sacrifice, the king of France finally achieved the supreme ruling power.However, the development of history has not been smooth sailing here. Patriotism and national reunification still have a long way to go, and the century-old war between Britain and France is still inevitable.
[-]. Other nation-states
France and England were not the only nation-states produced in the Middle Ages. At the same time, Scotland, Hungary, and Poland in Western Europe also became nation-states one after another.On the Scandinavian Peninsula, which is close to the poles, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have also risen resolutely, catching up with the pace of nation-states.On the Spanish peninsula, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon were also emerging flames of nation-states.These small sparks instantly strengthened the power of the nation-state.The two kingdoms of Sicily in Italy and Flanders in the Netherlands were in their infancy, and they were also a force for the nation-state to form a prairie fire.
Therefore, compared with today's Western Europe, the political map of Western Europe in the Middle Ages is already similar.By the 14th century, most parts of Europe had moved towards national independence and worked hard to establish independent regimes to form political independence.Inevitably, regionalism remained, mainly in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, while the rest were nation-states with their own kings.
However, most kings in the Middle Ages did not fully possess absolute power. They were all restricted by various conditions to varying degrees, even strictly restricted.The legacy of feudal forces, rebellious uprisings of regional tribes, rather frequent elections, various concessions or special treatment of nobles, and the existence of parliament are all obstacles to royal power.In essence, republicanism and monarchy, democracy and aristocracy all emerged in medieval government.
(End of this chapter)
[-]. Political chaos
Contrasted with modern countries Today, we are quite familiar with the major countries of the world, such as France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and the United States.The governments of various countries have achieved strict laws and stable societies.The government generally delegates the power of some affairs such as religion to individuals to handle freely, while education, medical care, etc. are handled by relevant government personnel.In medieval Europe, however, the situation was very different.
A political patchwork map If one were to draw a map of European politics in the early Middle Ages, one would have to show not just a few advanced democracies, such as France, Italy, and Germany, but hundreds or thousands of them. Small details such as duchies, counties, city-states and episcopal states.
For example, France has the principalities of Normandy, Burgundy, Bourbon, Guyenne, and Gascony, as well as the counties of Paris, Angers, Poitiers, Blois, Artois, and Vallot.Italy has the duchies of Savoy and Milan, city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Florence, and Siena, the pope's bishopric state, and the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples (the famous "Two Sicilies").Germany has the duchies of Bavaria, Austria, Saxony, Silesia, and Luxembourg; the counties of Württemberg and Tyrol; the princes of Brandenburg and Lusatia; Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Bishop states of Strasbourg, Münster, Utrecht, Magdeburg and Salzburg; Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Latisben, Nuremberg, Worms, Frankfurt Wait for the city-state.
The above list is only a small fragment of the patchwork territory of European politics in the early Middle Ages.Among these fragments, some are very large, others are small, including republics, monarchies, and aristocratic states.
The State and the "Hierarchy" Feudal forms prevailed at the time.The most common medieval country was a duchy or county consisting of the manors of the vassal lords and some towns.The head of state—the duke or earl—generally sets up his castle in the capital and listens to politics here.There was also usually a force of feudal knights and mercenaries and a parliament representing the opinions of the "estates" in the country.
"Classes" "Classes" here means all social classes.Among them, priests are the highest class, nobles are second in comparison, and others are often collectively referred to as the third class.
With the consent of the "levels," each feudal suzerain could promulgate laws, collect taxes, mint coins, declare wars with other states, conclude treaties, govern territories, and try cases at court.
The history of most medieval feudal states is messy and uninteresting, always repeating the same mistakes there.However, the times have been advancing, and change has finally appeared.
Kings and kingdoms In the feudal countries of the Middle Ages, some kings won victories. For example, Britain and France merged many duchies and counties into a unified nation-state.But in some countries, such as Italy and Germany, the dukes and counts divided the country into many parts and had many independent cities.
This chapter plans that the analysis of the feudal system in the previous chapter can help us better understand this patchwork map.This chapter will further describe how the kings established feudal countries in their territories. The following will first introduce the church and the Holy Roman Empire.
[-]. Church and State
In medieval Europe, the Christian church was probably the most powerful.The relationship between the bishop and the king is also intricate, sometimes maintaining a close relationship, and sometimes facing each other with swords.
Church System As far as we know, the supreme leader of the Western Christian Church is the Pope, the bishop in Rome.The Christian Church divides the countries where the church is located into archdiocese, diocese and diocese.The archdiocese is the highest division, generally covering a very vast area, and the highest status in the archdiocese is called the archbishop or archbishop.A diocese is part of a large diocese governed by a bishop.The diocese is a small part of the bishopric, and each diocese will only have one church. The diocese geographically includes the town or village where the worshipers who come to the church are located.In each diocese there will be a priest who is responsible for presiding over the mass and administering the sacraments, and in some important dioceses there may be assistant priests and priests to help the priest.Priests such as archbishops, bishops, priests, and priests are collectively called lay priests.Because they live and work in this world, they are called lay priests.
Regular priests Regular priests include monks, beggar monks, and nuns. They have separated from secular life and work, and live according to certain religious regulations.
There are the following types of regular priests: (1) The monks and nuns of the church live in the designated monasteries for men and women respectively. (2) Crusader orders, such as the Knights Templar or the Teutonic Knights that appeared in the 12th century, were organized by the church in accordance with the military system. (3) Mendicant monks, or begging monks.The original beggar monks did not have a fixed residence, but just wandered around and lived on people's relief, so they were called "begging" or "begging".Their main job is to preach to people.These mendicant monks began to emerge in the 13th century, and the most famous of them are the "Franciscan" monks and the "Dominican" monks.The former imitated Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), who mainly preached humility and friendliness to those living in poverty; the latter were followers of Dominique (1170-1221), who inspired the enthusiasm of the beggar monks to preach .
Many regular priests have taken vows to live in poverty, celibacy, and obedience to the teachings.In the Middle Ages, the monks and friars of the church were highly educated, and many great scholars were friars or friars.Many regular priests also joined secular church organizations, and some became bishops or even popes.
The Church in the Government Initially, the main role of the church was to guide and regulate people's religious life.But with the expansion of people's desires and the lack of effective management of government laws in the dark ages of the Middle Ages, the church directly led to many other things.As one can see, monasteries began to accommodate travelers as there were not enough facilities.Because of the lack of public schools, the church took on the task of educating the children.As time went by, the church became more and more proficient in administrative management, and its status in people's minds became higher and higher.Later, the church even had a complete legal system called canons.
The courts of the church heard not only cases concerning priests, but also cases involving marriage, blasphemy and inheritance disputes among lay people.Many bishops and abbots became feudal suzerains, who ruled vast areas and exercised the powers of legislation, coinage, and taxation in their respective areas.The pope became the supreme ruler of the entire Roman region and occupied an important place in medieval politics.
Barbarism was a problem In the Middle Ages, the legacy of the Dark Ages still plagued the Church.Although the barbarians who had been heathen had been converted, and their descendants were in the process of civilisation, the great mass of the people remained ignorant.Especially those feudal aristocrats who were militant with a Christian halo on their heads. In fact, they were not much better than the barbarians.Until the 10th century, the church was still trying to teach such warriors not to break into the church and hurt monks, let alone fight on religious festivals.In other words, neither "God's peace" nor "God's truce" meant much to these savage warriors.
Feudalism is a threat For the feudal lords of that era, the rich estates owned by the church were almost an irresistible temptation.They sometimes seized church lands by force, but more often they attempted to control church property by attempting to elect their confidants and relatives to teaching positions.Since the abbots and bishops were suzerains of vast lands, they derived substantial income from them.Thus ambitious feudal suzerains, and even kings and emperors, were constantly trying to place their own men in the priesthood, even though these men were often devoid of piety and sometimes even immoral.In the 10th and early 11th centuries, such things even affected the selection of popes.
On the one hand, there are always some people trying to get rich by bribing themselves or their relatives to be elected to the teaching position.This practice was reviled by the reformers, who indignantly called it "simony" because they believed that it was similar to Simon Machu's attempt to buy the power of the Holy Spirit with money and was punished by the apostles. The events of Peter's severe reprimand are very similar.On the other hand, it involves the celibacy of priests, that is, the stipulation that priests are not allowed to marry.Celibacy has not always existed in the church, but was vigorously promoted by popes and synods in Western Europe in the 4th and 5th centuries.But this rule was often violated, especially by secular aristocrats who obtained teaching positions through political influence or the "Simon style".
Cluny and the Reformation For these abuses, the monks held a large number of activities to oppose, especially the French Cluny monks.The Cluniac reform movement not only spread throughout Europe, but was also supported by several emperors.
Electoral College of Cardinals In the middle of the 11th century, the pope, who was full of reform spirit, took the lead in the movement against the phenomenon of "Simonism" and the political control of the church, and at the same time opposed the marriage of priests. In 1059, Pope Nicholas II issued an order: After that, the emperor or the aristocratic families in Rome could not nominate the Pope, but instead elected by a combination of bishops, priests and ecclesiastics in Rome.This method of selection intends to place better people in positions in the church, so that they will have more independence and will not be influenced by outsiders.This electoral body came to be known as the "Cardinal" Electoral College.
Hildebrand Pope Gregory VII, also known as Hildebrand, was the greatest reformer of the 11th century.He is a man of sincerity, integrity and fearlessness.His zeal and energy rivaled that of the prophet Elijah.While he was working on strengthening the power of the church, he clashed with Emperor Henry IV about the sealing of tin.Gregory forbade any secular ruler to tin seal clerics, not even kings or emperors, who were only allowed to confer rings and staffs on clergy as symbols of theocracy.
Henry and Canossa A storm of protest against Hildebrand's reforms was brewing, especially in Germany and northern Italy.The emperor refused to obey Hildebrand's orders and tried to depose the pope.Gregory retaliated by excommunicating the emperor, trying to expel him from the church.Before long, Henry found himself facing a German rebellion.Panicked, he hurried to Italy to meet the Pope and beg his forgiveness.In the castle of Canossa in the snow-covered Apennines, the pope made the emperor stand barefoot in the courtyard in the rough clothes of a penitent for three days.The Pope then forgave him and accepted him back into the Church.The Pope's purpose in doing this is to make an example of others and to teach other despotic rulers a lesson.This is the more famous event that took place in 1077.But Henry didn't keep his promise, and the conflict broke out again, this time involving feudal lords, and Germany was plagued by civil war for many years.In that chaos, Gregory VII was expelled from Rome, and finally died in exile in 1085.Before he died, he once said, I love justice and hate crime, so I died in exile.
Years after the Worms Religious Agreement, in 1122, the reforms Gregory was striving for were finally realized in the Worms Religious Agreement.The treaty of the agreement agreed with Gregory in some respects that only the pope and his deputies could tin a bishop or other cleric with a ring or staff.
After Innocent III's conflict in Sifeng was resolved, the authority of the Pope was elevated, claiming supreme power.In Innocent III (1198-1216), the Pope's influence was at its greatest, when he declared that although "princes had earthly powers," the clergy had a higher power, because the clergy were the rulers of the souls of men.This was the ambition of Innocent III, who wanted the pope to be the supreme ruler and monarch of all Christian countries.Of all his political achievements, the most famous was his victory against the King of England, who opposed his appointment of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Catbury.
The Spiritual Foundation The real strength of the church lies not in its politics but in the faith of its members in its divine mission.What the Church claims and is acknowledged is that the Church is the eternal foundation established by Jesus Christ for the preaching of his Gospel, the administration of the sacraments, and the eternal happiness of men in eternal life.
Heretics and the Inquisition In Medieval Europe, heretics were always viewed with anger and horror, and sometimes even executed them. In the 13th century, people also established a special court system to try heretics.This system is historically known as the "Inquisition".Although Jews were not tried as heretics and were allowed to keep their churches and priests, there was always a lot of prejudice against them.In addition, a series of Crusades were fought against Muslims.
Religious intolerance was no greater tragedy in the Middle Ages.Christians forget that their founder was a victim of intolerance and taught tolerance.For them, intolerance has become an inherited trait that is hard to let go because it fits with their strong beliefs and passions.And intolerance of one kind or another has not completely disappeared even in our own time.Our so-called religious freedom is only a seemingly advanced but in fact incomplete achievement.
[-]. Empire
The Revival of Rome Throughout the long history, what comes into view is that the Western Empire in the feudal period was a new country rather than a direct continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and it just continued to use an expanded old name.In 800 AD, Charlemagne was crowned "Emperor of Rome" by Pope Leo III.However, there was a period of time when there was no emperor in the West. In order to strengthen the ruling power of the church, King Otto of Germany was crowned the "Holy Roman Empire" by Pope John.According to this ideal, the Empire must rule over all Christian kingdoms like the Catholic Church.Therefore, the church that dominates the spiritual realm also requires the empire to dominate the political realm.The feudal empire insisted that it was the real ruler of the ancient Christian Roman Empire, so it called itself the "Holy Roman Empire".
The Holy Roman Empire Germania, the Netherlands, Bohemia (Czechoslovakia), Austria, Switzerland, Burgundy, and most of Italy are all within the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire.But the west of France, England, Spain, the Scandinavian countries, and Hungary were not ruled by it.
Kingdom of Germany The Kingdom of Germany was ruled by Otto I and his successors, and the empire after Otto was actually split from the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun, which originated in 843.Otto was above all the most important German king, and his successors thereafter were, under normal circumstances, "Holy Roman Emperors."But things are often unexpected.
If these successors had only devoted their energies to governing their own country, they might have achieved a strong and prosperous nation-state long ago, just like England and France.However, they fantasize about the future and deviate from the actual track.Due to the expansion of personal ambitions and the temptation of ancient honorary titles, as well as the urging of the Pope, they attempted to rebuild the ancient, prestigious and enduring Roman Empire on the basis of the German Kingdom, but they failed miserably.Due to the fragmentation of Germany, the broken country has not achieved real unity. They only have the false name of empire, and everything else has disappeared, leaving only the shadow of history.
The head of the empire elected by the emperors and princes was known as the "King of Germany" or "King of the Romans" until he was crowned by the Pope.After the coronation, he is the supreme and inviolable "Roman Emperor".The emperor always tried to get his own son elected "king" while he was alive, so that his family's descendants would have priority in succession to the throne.If things go on like this, the title of emperor will be passed down from father to son.
According to theoretical logic, it is speculated that the emperor who holds great power is the heir of Constantine and Theodosius.But in fact, he is not as powerful and invincible as imagined. There is not much difference between the feudal lord and him, except that he can obtain a certain amount of material wealth from his own estate or persuade and deter vassals to give him a little bit of authority. .However, his vassals were also careful not to let the emperor surpass himself too much and dominate himself, lest he would bow down and let him "slaughter" after losing power.
Throughout history, we can see that some vassals (princes) have important voting rights and can elect the "King of Germany", so they are known as "Electors" or "Electors".The number of electors varied from era to era, but in 1356, the famous decree of the "Golden Seal Edict" was issued, legally electing seven. "Bulla" is just an abbreviation of the Latin word "bulla," but it was a popular term for a decree or document bearing a seal at the time.Because the seal was placed in a gold box, the decree was called "Golden Seal Edict".According to the seven electors stipulated in the "Golden Seal Edict", they are: the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the Earl of the Rhine with royal power, the Duke of Saxony and Brandenburg Marquis.
Free cities In the Holy Roman Empire, some cities are very important, especially in the Rhine River Main River Valley in northern Italy, as well as some cities along the North Sea and Baltic Sea.They are valued by the emperor and princes, and have obtained some kind of franchise power, so they have a lot of autonomy and independence, so that they will become independent and split when they develop to a certain extent.When the German emperor had a large number of knights and barons, these cities theoretically became direct vassals of the emperor instead of being entrusted to the emperor, but in practice they were chaotic, greedy and martial, and did not obey any state Law Ji, often went out to plunder the traveling merchants outside the castle.Merchants and cities formed a united front against the bandit-like barons, while princes and cities formed an alliance and often fought against the emperor.The chaos and strife have essentially threatened the stability of the emperor's position and weakened the strength of the so-called powerful empire.In this case, if the emperor can still maintain order, it is indeed strong enough.
Parliament In the empire, a kind of parliament (Diet) was not elected by universal vote, and the parliament was attended by representatives elected by certain representative groups and classes with special status.In particular, it represents the will and defends the vested interests of the Electors, Bishops, Barons and Free Cities.The parliament was convened by the emperor and was often held in Frankfurt. The representatives of the parliament made some suggestions to the emperor and negotiated to safeguard his interests.However, the representatives cared more about their own special interests than general welfare, so the parliament did not play a role in assisting the emperor in handling national affairs or strengthening the power of the empire.
A series of quarrels between the imperial emperor and the feudal pope, especially the long-term quarrel over the ownership of the feudal rights, clearly exposed the fatal weakness of the empire and damaged its reputation. Among them, the humiliation Henry IV received in Canossa strongly illustrates all this.
Battle of Legnano 100 years after Canossa, the emperor Frederick I nicknamed Barbarossa ("Red Beard") fought a bitter struggle with Pope Alexander III for supremacy and thus Become the world overlord.Both were tough, and the quarrel got out of hand, and it developed into a fistfight between giants. Their quarrel came to a head in 1176, when the Lombard League in northern Italy joined the Pope in a united front and defeated the Emperor at the famous Battle of Legnano, a fatal blow to the power of the Empire. get weak. Fourteen years later, Barbarossa died during a crusade against the Muslims of the East.
The Council of Lyons, Frederick II, grandson of Barbarossa, the emperor, challenged the Pope.He vigorously expanded the power of the kingdom in Italy in order to annex the Papal States one day.After years of verbal criticism and sword-fighting, the emperor's army was finally driven out of Italy.In 1245, at the general church meeting held in Lyon, France, the emperor was deposed.Five years later, just like his fate, the empire also disappeared into the long river of history with him.
During the period from 1250 to 1273 in the Habsburg royal family, no one became the real emperor. In fact, even the electors had constant quarrels.But in 1273, they finally elected Rudolf from the Habsburg family.He was famous for having fought for himself and his family, capturing the Duchy of Austria.The Duchy of Austria was controlled by the Habsburg family until 1918.For half a century after Rudolph's death, the crown passed from one family to another.But after 1437, most of the "Holy Roman Emperors" were Habsburgs.In that era, the empire was nothing more than a ghost that haunted people's dreams all the time.But this ghost has been passed down to this day.
Some results First, the failure of the empire gave birth to many nation-states - Hungary, Poland, the Scandinavian states, France, Spain, England.Second, after the feudal melee that overthrew the empire, some powerful families emerged—the Habsburgs in Austria, the Wittelsbachs in Bavaria, and the Hohenzollern in Prussia.Again, the strong Germanic peoples in the Alpine valleys united, and in defiance of the feudal lords of the empire, they established several republics in Switzerland.A strong empire could have prevented such events, but its incompetence enabled the republic.In the end, due to the weakness of the empire and the failure of its rule, some cities in Germany and Italy gained independence one after another and established their own city-states.Industry, commerce, art, academia, liberal regimes, etc. all developed, and the city-state made great contributions to this.
[-]. City-state
During the Middle Ages, there were some large city-states in Germany, the Netherlands and northern Italy.In Western Europe, every important town has its own government, which is more valuable because it is partially independent than other governments.In different regions, towns have different development prospects, some can develop into truly free cities, while others gradually merge into nation-states.
Nation-state cities In some European countries, kings finally defeated feudal lords and established powerful centralized states.Examples: England, Fascism, Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary, Spain and Southern Italy.In these countries the municipality has always belonged to the sovereign and is dependent on the nation-state.But such towns were not devoid of liberty and power; they had their own royal masters, from whom they generally received a partial license to govern local affairs freely, as well as representation in the national parliament.
The towns of the free cities of Germany, the Netherlands, and northern Italy were able to break free from external constraints and develop into free cities because they were within the increasingly weakened and decaying empire.These cities are notable for their location as hubs of commerce between East and West, which has enabled their economies to flourish and their populations to grow.A thriving economy afforded citizens of the Free City plenty of leisure time, and the city grew into a center of art and learning.The freedom of the city gave citizens the opportunity to participate in politics, so bold and advanced measures of modern democratic politics were born from it.
The free city-states of the Middle Ages are very similar to those established by the ancient Phoenicians and Greeks.City-states such as Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan, Lübeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Danzig, Cologne, Bruges, and Ghent all had a certain number of villages, and generally had trading bases in distant areas.Each city-state is highly recognized by its citizens.A native of Florence or Danzig, for example, always first considers himself a Florentine or a Danzig, never an Italian or a German.
Of course, each free city has its own government, laws, courts, currency, and its own army.If it is a harbor city, it also has its own navy.Each city can form alliances, fight wars, and make treaties like a nation-state.
The story of the rise and fall of medieval city-states is much like the story of Athens, Corinth, Melet, and Rome, and their histories are remarkably similar.Most of their histories involve cities fighting against foreign powers, citizens rebelling against feudal lords for political rights, city-states fighting against rival cities or internal struggles over commercial interests, and conflicts for control of the government and its policies. Conflict stories between merchants and craftsmen, between rich and poor, between nobles and commoners, between ancient Roman nobles and ancient Roman commoners.
Venice In Venice, one of the most famous city-states of the Middle Ages, wealthy merchants dominated from the outset and formed a highly effective government long ago.An assembly composed of some of the Venetian nobles selected the magistrates and made the general laws.They set up a small senate to manage diplomacy and commerce, to declare war and negotiate peace.There was also a council of ten dedicated to monitoring public morals and detecting conspiracies against the government, it had the power to arrest and interrogate prisoners in secret, and it could sentence anyone to death.
The government of Venice is a republic, with the head of state elected from among the doge and the duke.The head of state is assisted by the cabinet, guides the work of the government, and has the power to command the army and navy.Venice prospered in the 12th and 13th centuries, thanks to its naval power and trade in the Crusader era.Similar to ancient Athens, it gradually developed into a maritime city-state.Venice's domain included the large islands of Cyprus and Crete.
Genoa The city of Genoa is located on the northwest coast of Italy and was a very famous city-state in the Middle Ages.Compared with Venice, Genoa's historical development is more tortuous and turbulent, the internal environment is very bad, and civil strife often occurs. In the 14th century, there was a governor in charge of Genoa, and finally passed a period of relative peace and stability.However, the good times didn't last long. The Genoese were very keen to expand foreign economic and trade, and tried their best to become the hegemony of the sea, so they continued to fight.In this respect, Genoa and Venice are very similar, and both were quite successful.Genoa competed with another city in Italy, Pisa. As a result of the war, Genoa won a big victory and gained the right to rule the islands such as Corsica and Sardinia.In addition, the Genoese actively participated in the Crusades, so like Venice, they gained some trading territories and strongholds in the eastern part of the Mediterranean.Since then, Genoa and Venice have launched a long-term struggle. In this protracted contest, Venice finally won, while Genoa gradually declined with the defeat.
Florence In the 12th century, Florence had become a republic, and the consuls were responsible for managing the country and were the main officials of the country.The nobles once firmly controlled the power of the government for a period of time, but the civilians in Florence did not accept it. They had independent thinking and were very rebellious. exert influence on the government.This is far more than Venice and Genoa.Even sometimes, the government of Florence can almost reach the level of complete democracy, but in the end it is controlled by a few wealthy big families, who actually become the "leaders" and power holders of Florentine democratic politics.The most famous of these families is the great banker Medici family, which flourished in the 15th century and evolved the family rule into hereditary, trying to become the dictator of Florence from generation to generation.Florence is the capital and important city of Tuscany, which is ancient Etruria.At that time, Florence was already a famous art center, and its reputation has continued to this day.
Milan Milan is located in Lombardy, and its status and influence in Lombardy is similar to that of Florence in Tuscany.Milan once had a semi-democratic government, and performed extremely well in the battle with Frederick Barbarossa, becoming an important leading member of the Lombard League. In 1176, the Lombard League completely defeated Frederick Barbarossa at Legnano.In 1262, the Visconti family rose up and successfully controlled the power of the Milan government, becoming the consul of Milan.The Visconti family ruled earlier than the Medici family in Florence.The Visconti family ruled Milan for 200 years.Over time and development, Milan slowly expanded into a duchy known as the Duchy of Milan, whose territory included most of Lombardy.To this day, Milan remains one of the wealthiest cities in Italy.
Other cities Many other cities in the Middle Ages also developed rapidly, becoming richer and more powerful, and at the same time possessing a long history and civilization.For example, the city of Bruges in the Netherlands is as important as Venice in Italy.The city of Ghent, which has been fighting against Bruges all the year round, is more like Genoa.In addition, many cities in Germany are also very important. They play a commanding role in the political affairs of the German Kingdom, and even have the power to interfere in the political affairs of the Holy Roman Empire.
City alliances Medieval cities often formed alliances to facilitate commercial trade and ensure their respective political and military security, so city alliances were very common at the time.Just like the members of the Lombard League united together, the main purpose is to protest the emperor's dictatorship and authority.Germany has a Hanseatic League, also known as the "Merchant's Guild", which is organized to protect the commercial exchanges and urban prosperity of the members of the alliance.The Hanseatic League was initiated in the 13th century, and its leader and founder was Lübeck.In its heyday, the Hanseatic League covered more than 70 cities. It held alliance meetings, organized and mobilized the army and navy to participate in the war, which greatly promoted the trade between members of Germany, and also promoted the economic and trade links between Germany and foreign countries. . In the 14th century, the Hanseatic League had established trade bases in England, Italy, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Russia and other places, and the development of the alliance reached its peak during this period.
Government Diplomacy In the Middle Ages, various city-states successively established various types of governments, including the establishment of municipal officials.There used to be a class of professional city officials in Italy, and members of the class specialized in serving as city officials to handle government affairs.Many practices and rules in modern diplomacy come from the management methods of city-states in the Middle Ages, especially the Italian cities have a great influence on later generations. In the 13th century, Venice produced a class of professional envoys, and made special regulations on the work of ambassadors. For example, ambassadors could not bring their wives to visit abroad, in case she leaked state secrets. It was also stipulated that ambassadors should bring their own cooks on missions. Foreign countries, to prevent being poisoned to death.
[-]. Nation-states
What do we mean by nation-state today?Generally speaking, a nation-state refers to a nation that uses the same language to form a national government. Its rights are not interfered and restricted by any foreign government. It has centralized power to a certain extent and has enough power to control the territory. any local government.
Around the 10th century, that is, the early Middle Ages, almost all governments in Europe were feudal and local in nature.There was no real nation-state at that time.By the 14th century, that is, the end of the Middle Ages, in the Holy Roman Empire, Germany, and the Italian city-states, the feudal system and localism still prevailed and became the mainstream political forces, but in other areas, nation-states were slowly gestating, quietly Rise.
Reasons for the rise of nation-states There must be internal and external reasons for the rise of nation-states, and some factors have had an important impact on it: (1) A certain language has distinctive features and is gradually becoming popular in a certain area; (2) The Christian church in England and Spain , Poland and other places have established some national regime systems, and these successful examples have had an impact on other regions; (3) Since the invasion of barbarian tribes, many barbarians have established kingdoms with the nature of nation-states; (4) Roman law has been revived, and in It spread widely in some regions, and Roman law especially emphasized the supremacy of the king's power, and its regional influence was great, not limited to a tribe of a single nation; (5) The development of the feudal system has provided evidence, and the national government really needs to obtain more Solid and centralized ruling power.
The establishment of a centralized nation-state means the victory of the struggle between the kings and the feudal lords for the right to rule.All early nation-states were monarchies, because the people yearned for a peaceful environment, hoped to live a safe and orderly life, and obtained opportunities to work and labor without being disturbed.Because of this, people willingly obeyed the king and endured heavy pressure and burdens under the rule of the totalitarian government.
[-]. England
The successful transformation of England into a nation-state is a long process, which has gone through several generations of struggle.Under the leadership of the Saxon Egbe, King Alfred, the Danish conquerors Schweigen and Canute, and the re-established Saxon Confessors Edward and Harold, the establishment of the nation-state was gradually realized .This story begins in the middle of the 11th century.The most radical change was in 1066, when William, Duke of Normandy, led his army across the English Channel, killed Harold in the war, conquered England, and completely reformed the centralization of government.
A Book and an Oath In 1086, William sent his officials to visit the various parts of England, known as William I or William the Conqueror, and demanded a detailed investigation of everyone's property. Land List.As long as he had this book at hand, the king could know how much tax each person should or could pay to the state.In the same year (1086) William asked certain landowners to come to Salisbury to meet him and swear allegiance only to him and against others.This put them under the direct control of the king, and even had to oppose their immediate superiors, the feudal lords. This is the well-known Salisbury oath.
Thus, William I succeeded in accomplishing two things in accordance with the Land List and the Salisbury Oath: (1) he demanded that taxes be collected on a warranted basis; (2) he shook the foundations of England's feudal system.Although there were still disputes between the king and the feudal lords, William laid a good foundation for the British nation-state with this book and the oath.And he set an example for the kings of that era, guiding them how to be a good king.
Language and Law William I brought to England two things that for a time hindered the development of a national and unified England: the Norman French language and Norman French law (that is, part of the old Roman law).Norman French was adopted by the English government as a symbol of conquerors.Latin is still used by the Church, while most of the people speak Anglo-Saxon.In this way, the English language appeared in due course, with three languages each accounting for a part, the main language being Anglo-Saxon.The laws of England are ultimately partly Norman French and partly Anglo-Saxon.
The successes and failures of Henry II About 100 years after the Normans conquered England, Henry II also had a fierce battle with priests and nobles.After a dark period of reign in England, Henry II came to the throne.During his reign, the baron ruled lawlessly, oppressed the people, and ran amok.Henry II had had many disputes with these barons, hoping to change the situation at that time, and finally forced them to submit.He tried in vain to compel the clergy who violated the laws of the king to come before the king's court as they had been tried in the ecclesiastical courts.The leading proponent of clerical privilege was Thomas Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury.The controversy raged for years until, in 117, the archbishop was murdered by a friend of the king.
However, instead of helping the status quo, the murder of the archbishop hindered the king's cause.Archbishops are honored and commemorated as martyrs.The king was forced to submit, held a penitential ceremony at Becket's tomb, and relinquished his denunciation of the clergy, which he had previously denigrated not of the clergy but of the nobles.
Juries and common law Henry II's most influential work was improving the courts, sending judges on regular tours of the country.Henry II also established the system of jurors, that is, to select honest people in each region to serve as jurors, after taking an oath, reporting crimes, and assisting judges in adjudicating cases.With this procedure, circuit courts and jurors, as well as customary law, are generally applied.Some local laws and old feudal laws were replaced by the king's laws and the judgments of the king's judges, making the law universal, that is, the same throughout the country.This was the former customary law in England, much of which was made by judges.Now when we refer to "customary law" we mean Old English law.Common law extends from England to all English-speaking countries.
Magna Carta The second major step in the development of the national government of England was the acquisition of liberty and a strong opposition to feudal absolutism. In 1215, the nobles who opposed the king, together with some bishops and some people of the middle class, forced Henry II's son, King John, to sign the Magna Carta, in which the king was forced to promise to respect their power.
King John also did two other important things that he was unwilling to do: (1) he became a vassal of the Pope - recognizing the Pope as the feudal suzerain of England; (2) he gave up some of his lands on the Continent And give it to the King of France.We remember King John for the great things he did that he didn't want to do.Perhaps he would not have conceded so much if he had not been under so much pressure, and even for a time all classes united against him.As for his death in 1216, it is not difficult to explain.
King John, the first House of Commons, lived long enough for him to violate or attempt to violate Magna Carta.His son and successor, Henry III, had a long and difficult reign (1216–1272), largely because they violated the Magna Carta.During the Civil War the barons were always trying to make him stick to the charter.The chief general of the barons was Simon Montfort, the king's brother-in-law. In 1265, after Henry's defeat and capture, Simon convened a council that turned out to be a new kind of council.At that time there was the old Privy Council composed of nobles, bishops and abbots, and Simon also summoned two knights from each county, and two citizens from each town, as new representatives of the people, to form the House of Commons, which is the House of Commons. beginning.The House of Commons together with that old body constituted Parliament.
129 years of the Model Parliament, King Edward I unexpectedly followed the lead of his uncle, Simon Montfort, by bringing the House of Commons into Parliament, a departure from the usual practice of his father Henry III and his grandparents.Since then, cities and towns in the state, county and below can send publicly elected representatives to attend and participate in national legislative activities together with bishops and nobles.Since the adjustment of the parliament is unprecedented and praised by people, it is known as the "model parliament" in the world.Overall, this is a major achievement for the English government.Another important achievement came in 1282.
Outside England In 1282, King Edward I conquered Wales.Then, in 1301, when rewarding his heirs, he gave the title of "Prince of Wales" to the future successor, and this new title was passed down in British history.In addition, this illustrious king was also enthusiastic about the conquest of Scotland, although only temporarily successful.In the following years, the king of England was ambitious and tried his best to expand his territory.Therefore, they aimed at neighboring France and wanted to annex it, and France was in jeopardy.
[-]. France
As we all know, according to the "Treaty of Versailles" in 843 AD, the original Charlemagne empire was divided, and its west was France, and most of the remaining area was ancient Frank.In 987 AD, the nobleman Hugues Capet inherited the throne of France.Centuries later, the throne is still handed down from generation to generation in this huge family.Since ancient times, the feudal system has been deeply rooted in France, far stronger than England.It is conceivable that kings living in different environments naturally have different personalities. The king of France has been suppressed for a long time, so he appears weaker in comparison.In other words, due to the special historical conditions of the country, France still has a long way to go towards national independence.
Philip Augustus Philip II (1180-1223), King of France, is commonly known as Philip Augustus.During his reign, he made many contributions to the strengthening of the French monarchy.For example, he abolished the custom of paying homage to beneficiary nobles, a drop in the ocean of his vast political career, of course. In 1214, France and England fought fiercely at Bouwens.As the supreme commander of France, Philip defeated King John with his outstanding military talent and wisdom, and recovered the colonies occupied by England in France, maintained territorial sovereignty, and weakened the feudal forces in northern and central France.Immediately afterwards, Philip reorganized and reformed the government. In order to prevent a resurgence, he replaced feudal officials with trusted agents.Throughout his life, he defeated the feudal system with brave and powerful force, excellent diplomatic means and strict legal means.
During his reign, the Albigensian Christians were frequently active in southern France, and the nobles regarded them as heresies, even thorns in their eyes and flesh.Even without Philip's support, they still waged a crusade against the Albigens.The struggle ended in a crushing defeat for the Count of Toulouse.After a few years, most of the south came under the crown.
Louis IX (1226-1270), the grandson of Philip II, was a model Christian king in the Middle Ages, and the church awarded him a very high honor-St. Louis.His only philosophy is: everyone is equal and treats people fairly.Because of his high personal reputation, coupled with rigorous and wise legislation, he effectively consolidated the French monarchy and made immortal contributions.During the two crusades against the Muslims, he won widespread acclaim and increased his popularity.But what is heartbreaking is that he died in the second crusade.
The handsome Philip Philip IV (1285-1314), the grandson of Louis IX, was born handsome and unrestrained, so he was nicknamed "Handsome".He is alert, resolute and decisive, often unscrupulous in order to achieve his goals, but he always succeeds.He was determined to strengthen the royal power, so he ordered the taxation of priests to fill the treasury, and tried the French bishops in the royal court.However, this move was strongly resisted by the Pope, who threatened to depose Philip and excommunicate him.Those who win the hearts of the people win the world. In order to win the people as their strong backing, Philip convened the French three-level conference.The so-called three levels, as the name suggests, are composed of three groups, namely bishops, nobles and commoners, and the representatives of the commoners will enter the third level in the future French history.
To the pope's surprise and anger, in the three-level conference, the bishops and the bishops sided with the king because they were eager to get rid of the church's excessive taxes. Good time for power.Their national sentiments are stirring in their hearts, one after another.It is conceivable that the elderly Pope Boniface VIII could not bear these oppression and humiliation, he could not calm down, became depressed and became ill, and soon passed away.Things went much smoother thereafter, and Philip chose a good friend to be pope, succeeding Boniface.Construction of the Pope's palace began in Avignon, France, and was soon completed and occupied.As of 1305, the pope lived in Avignon for 70 years, during which the teaching power was always suppressed by the king, and the king was powerful.
France became a nation-state in 1314, and Philip IV fulfilled his last wish in the last years of his life—all the feudal fiefs had been brought under the jurisdiction of the king, and the feudal forces were insufficient and gradually dying.In contrast, France finally bid farewell to the era of capital relocation, officially established its capital in Paris, and established its political center.After hundreds of years of struggle and sacrifice, the king of France finally achieved the supreme ruling power.However, the development of history has not been smooth sailing here. Patriotism and national reunification still have a long way to go, and the century-old war between Britain and France is still inevitable.
[-]. Other nation-states
France and England were not the only nation-states produced in the Middle Ages. At the same time, Scotland, Hungary, and Poland in Western Europe also became nation-states one after another.On the Scandinavian Peninsula, which is close to the poles, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have also risen resolutely, catching up with the pace of nation-states.On the Spanish peninsula, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon were also emerging flames of nation-states.These small sparks instantly strengthened the power of the nation-state.The two kingdoms of Sicily in Italy and Flanders in the Netherlands were in their infancy, and they were also a force for the nation-state to form a prairie fire.
Therefore, compared with today's Western Europe, the political map of Western Europe in the Middle Ages is already similar.By the 14th century, most parts of Europe had moved towards national independence and worked hard to establish independent regimes to form political independence.Inevitably, regionalism remained, mainly in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, while the rest were nation-states with their own kings.
However, most kings in the Middle Ages did not fully possess absolute power. They were all restricted by various conditions to varying degrees, even strictly restricted.The legacy of feudal forces, rebellious uprisings of regional tribes, rather frequent elections, various concessions or special treatment of nobles, and the existence of parliament are all obstacles to royal power.In essence, republicanism and monarchy, democracy and aristocracy all emerged in medieval government.
(End of this chapter)
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