A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 18 Medieval Culture

[-]. Language and Literature
Latin is not only a widely spoken language, but also a transmitter of great civilizations.In the Middle Ages in Central and Western Europe, every educated person should not only be familiar with the local language, but more importantly, be proficient in Latin.

It can be said that Latin has become an international language. Latin is a living language that is used by countless people every day. Every priest, monk, teacher, lawyer, and doctor understands Latin, and everyone is well-educated. Gentlemen speak Latin all the time.At the same time, the famous books that have been widely circulated all over the world are mostly written in Latin.In addition, Latin is also the most commonly used diplomatic language, and various official affairs exchanges between national governments are all in Latin.

Medieval literature The classical literature of ancient Greece and Rome was written in Latin, and this habit has been passed down to the Middle Ages, such as Virgil's poems, church prayer books, and the popular version of the Bible translated by Jerome.There are many other famous works of literature from the Middle Ages, but most of them are also written in Latin, and here we only mention a few masterpieces.

In terms of legal books, in the 12th century jurists compiled the famous Gratian Canon Code in Bologna, and there was also the Code of Justinian.There are many different versions of Justinian's code, and some famous jurists have commented on the code.

In terms of historical documents, two famous writers appeared in the 12th century.One was Suger, abbot of the French monastery, and the other was Otto of Freising, bishop of Germany.Suger wrote an account of his Abbey of Saint-Denis and a history of the times of Louis VI and VII.Otto wrote a history of the world, as well as a biography of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa, a famous biography, it can be seen that the emperor did not live up to his name.

In literature, many beautiful and moving hymns have been produced. Thomas of Celano, author of the "Life of Francis of Assisi," wrote a "Day of Wrath."It was written by a Franciscan monk, a contemporary of Pope Boniface, who was also a well-known critic of the time. In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas wrote "Only Because of This" and "Ah!Beneficial Sacrifice" and other hymns.In addition, various types of prayer hymns appeared in the Middle Ages, among which the more famous ones are "Jesus, Only Thinking of You" and "Jesus, You Are the Joy of Love" written by the 12th century author Bernard of Clervaux.Bernard's hymns are full of beauty and are extremely popular. Almost every modern language in the world has translations of his poems, and they are loved and praised by Christians of all denominations.

It is worth mentioning that these new Latin hymns are not the same as the ancient Latin poems. The new Latin poems are all rhymed, and the rhymed poems we later created developed from this.

The Latin coat of Greek classical works The ancient Greek and Arabic masterpieces were continuously translated into Latin, making the Latin literature of the Middle Ages increasingly rich and substantial.The great works of ancient Aristotle spread to Western Europe. Some of his works were translated from Greek to Latin, and some of his works were translated from Greek to Arabic and then translated into Latin.

It was not until the 14th and 15th centuries that Western European scholars became enthusiastic about learning Greek. At that time, Latin gradually declined, and other flourishing native languages ​​were widely welcomed.

The so-called native language refers to the local language or dialect used by ordinary people.

There are many kinds of native languages ​​in Europe, such as Romance or Roman in southern Europe, Italian in Italy, French in northern France, Provence in southern France, Catalan in eastern Spain, and Cass in central Spain. Tirian, Portugal has Portuguese, and Romania has Romanian, and these native languages ​​are all developed from Latin, that is, Roman.

In addition, Teutonic and Germanic languages ​​appeared in Northwest Europe, including German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Dutch, etc., while English is regarded as a mixture of Teutonic and Romance languages.

There are Slavic languages ​​in central and eastern Europe, including Russian, Polish, Czech, Yugoslav, etc., while in the westernmost part of Europe, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and western Brittany in France, Celtic languages ​​are used. .

These groups of languages—Celtic, Slavic, Teutonic, and Romance, as well as Latin and Greek—all belong to the Aryan or Indo-European languages ​​in the language system.The language used by the Magyars and the Finns is another large language family, that is Turanian.

However, it is still too simple to list the native languages ​​of various places in this way, and it cannot show the full distribution of languages.In fact, in medieval Europe, almost every state, county, and city used its own local language. That is to say, there were as many native languages ​​as there were towns, even English, French, German, and Italian collectively. Many dialects.

At the beginning of dialect writings, scholars despised native dialects, but gradually, more and more works were written in dialects. For example, priests and monks generally used common Wrote prayer books in common languages ​​and translated Bible chapters in vernacular dialects.In addition, kings and feudal lords gradually adopted the daily language of their subjects to issue documents such as edicts and laws.

The same is true of writers.Poems, plays, songs, and stories written by poets, some old and some new. "For all nations, their childhood is spent in singing." Although the Middle Ages cannot be regarded as the childhood of the development of various nations, it is the childhood of national language and literature.Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a large number of poetic works.There were two main types of poetry at the time: lyrical poetry, about flowers, girls, and love, in a light-hearted and romantic style; and heroic epic, about knights and battles.

Famous poets who created lyric poetry in the Middle Ages include French troubadours and German lyric poets.In southern France, troubadours roamed around, visited magnificent castles, stayed in rural farmhouses, and composed and sang lyrical songs anytime and anywhere.The most famous German lyric poet is the poet named Walter von der Vogelweid.

Medieval narrative poems, such as the French "Song of Roland", the Spanish "Cid" and the German "Song of the Nibelungen", were widely circulated at that time.There were poets who specialized in war poetry, and who, like the poets who composed love songs, roamed as far and wide as the poets who wrote them in France, and in Germany they were called "burgher poets."

[-]. Education

Legendary and dramatic troubadours mostly like to tell stories by combining singing and reciting. The earliest stories were created in a native language called romance, which evolved from Roman, that is, What we call "legendary".In the legendary literature of the Middle Ages, drama literature is mainly of a religious nature, and most of them are performed in churches. The content mainly includes three categories: one is mysterious stories created according to the "Bible" and church history; The third is moral drama, which is mainly to provide lessons and examples for people and improve people's moral standards.

Tuscan Italian While French was widely spoken by troubadours, busboys and historians of France for its elegance and precise beauty, German was used by lyric poets, bourgeois poets and As scholars spread widely, Florentine and Tuscan languages ​​were also promoted as the literary languages ​​of Italy by Francis of Assisi, Dante, and other writers.Francis devoted his life to religion and poetry, especially his "Sun Hymn", which was called a "lovely religious lyric".Dante (1265-1321) is known as one of the three masters of the Renaissance. He was a Florentine scholar and a famous poet. He wrote a "Divine Comedy" in Italian, which brought together almost all the artistic and ideological achievements of the Middle Ages. , has become an immortal work of world literature. This work is worthy of praise in any era and is an extremely great literary masterpiece.

After Dante, two great writers appeared in Italy: Petrarch (1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313-1375). Petrarch came out with his elegant and moving sonnets, and Boccaccio Yau is known the world over for his realistic stories.

A major feature of the Middle Ages in education is the development of education, which can be seen from the numerous educational institutions such as universities, monasteries, and cathedrals. In particular, many universities have been established one after another, with a large number and a large scale.

Places and Methods Religion affects people's lives. Everyone receives religious teachings, some at home and some in church.For those young people living on the manor and in the town, the church taught them how to make a living. Boys in the country learned how to farm, boys in the city learned business or handicrafts, and girls learned cooking, sewing skills and crafts from their mothers. Organize chores.At that time there was no law forcing minors to go to school, so most children did not go to school, but bishops and abbots would set up some schools in cathedrals or abbeys to provide educational opportunities for diocesan children.

Educational Goals and Planning The main goal of the establishment of schools in cathedrals and monasteries is to train young people to participate in clergy work, so that they can live a special religious life separated from the world from an early age.But this is not the only purpose of establishing the school. In addition to religion-related courses, the school's courses also teach a lot of basic knowledge.In fact, these courses are similar to the school education in the ancient Roman Empire, and all teach the same "discipline" curriculum content.

There are a total of seven "subjects" taught in the three-subject and four-subject university classrooms, which are divided into three subjects and four subjects.Trivium refers to grammar, dialectics and rhetoric; Quadrivium refers to geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy.

In fact, the scope of study of each subject is much more than its name implies, and these subjects are taught in textbooks, the contents of which are mostly handed down from ancient times.Grammar mainly teaches Latin language and literature. Dialectics teaches logic, which is a very difficult course in logic. Rhetoric focuses on the creation of prose and poetry, and also includes some knowledge of the introduction to law.Geometry is not just the study of Euclid's theorems, but also geography and natural history.Arithmetic includes the study of Roman numerals and calendar calculations.Music generally requires learning the church's plain song rules, that is, Gregorian chants, as well as some theories of pitch and vocal music.Astronomy requires not only knowledge of celestial bodies, but also some knowledge of physics and chemistry.

Elementary schools In addition to the grammar schools, the church and monastery schools mentioned above, there are many elementary schools, most of which are run by town guilds and feudal lords, and mainly teach children to read, write and sing.The lectures in these schools usually do not use Latin but the vernacular.

For some reason, a small number of girls received special education in the schools attached to the nunnery, but most of the upper-class girls were required to learn fine needlework, learn to manage household affairs, and develop housekeeping skills.In addition, learn some basic medical knowledge of surgery and internal medicine in order to deal with daily minor trauma accidents and diseases, and also learn to read, write and keep accounts.

These schools will also provide some special learning content for noble youths, so that they can become chivalrous and brave knights, smart and capable lords, or prudent property managers in the future. The rules of etiquette and aristocratic customs, know the honor of knights, but also learn to play chess, play the piano, sing and write poetry, because these high-level entertainment skills are also very important.

Due to differences in regions and grades, it is difficult for some children in rural areas to enter regular schools. The nearby priests or monks will personally teach these children to let them know the teachings, responsibilities and obligations of religion.At the same time, the decorative paintings and statues in the church are based on stories from the Bible and church history, which will also allow rural children to learn some religious knowledge.In addition, some poor but talented boys will be taught by the diocesan priest alone, and the funds at the disposal of the church will be used to support them to study in regular grammar schools and even go to college.Therefore, an interesting phenomenon appeared in the Middle Ages: the number of poor scholars far exceeded that of rich scholars, and many first-class writers, scholars or politicians (including some popes) stood out from poor boys and went to the career pinnacle.

University education can be regarded as the most beautiful flower in the history of medieval education.Although there were institutions of higher education similar to universities in ancient times, our modern universities today developed from the universities in the Middle Ages, and are the continuation and expansion of those universities.

During the medieval period, no university was founded according to a pre-established plan.Each university is naturally produced according to the actual situation and needs of educational development.In certain cities of the Middle Ages, various groups of students gathered separately around their tutors.After a period of development, several student groups in the same city will form a society organization, which seems to be in line with the needs of the time.Bologna has federations of student groups, also known as guilds.The Guilds of Paris were formed by unions of teachers.All these associations merged together and slowly developed into a university, which is the essential meaning of the word "university", and "university" means "union and unity".

The students and teachers of the University of Paris belonged to different kinds of groups and were organized in different ways, so the association forms of these groups were also very different.The first university was built in Paris, and the following systems were formulated: (1) liberal arts hall, which is an undergraduate course, similar to a large-scale church-affiliated school, generally teaching the basic knowledge of the seven arts; (2) theology, philosophy, Law and medicine set up graduate schools to learn some higher-level knowledge and learning than undergraduates.

Liberal arts halls are usually run by an elected official known as the "superintendent."Students in the school can be divided into different groups according to their place of birth. These groups are called "nations".These "school halls" gradually developed into "colleges" (colleges), which are similar to the colleges in universities today, especially the colleges of Oxford University and Cambridge University today, which are basically the same in nature as the colleges at that time.

The situation of the research institute is slightly different. Each research institute is managed by a dean. Students studying in the research institute must have completed all the courses in the liberal arts hall and have obtained a "Bachelor of Arts". Only such students are allowed to enter the research institute. hospital.

Theology and Philosophy Theology was the most valued in the Middle Ages. This discipline even surpassed science and was called "after science".The second respected subject is law. In fact, different universities have their own key subjects.For example, the University of Paris pays more attention to theology and philosophy; the University of Bologna pays more attention to law, and later developed into a great law school; the University of Salerno in Italy pays more attention to medicine, and its medical school is extremely famous.

During the Middle Ages, there were a large number of works related to theology and philosophy. Right and Wrong written by Peter Abelard shocked many devout Christians.Peter Lombard's Proverbs, published around 1145, answered various religious questions raised by Abelard, and further summarized all the teachings of the church and incorporated them into the orthodox sacraments.Averroes (1126-1198) was a Mohammedan who wrote many works related to Aristotle, while the scholar Thomas Aquinas, a devout Christian, exhausted himself in his writings. In an effort to assuage some of the fear evoked by Averroes' remarks, he explains that religion and philosophy can be fused together to keep them on the same page.The most important of Thomas's writings was the Summa Theologica, which represented the greatest achievement in religious thought during the Middle Ages.

The revival of Roman law Around 1100 there was a renewed interest in the study of Roman law, this time beginning in Bologna and spreading to other regions shortly thereafter.In the era of social turmoil and frequent wars, many rules and systems of Roman law attracted people's attention because these legal provisions could effectively restrict evil and violence.Roman law created a concise and clear principle of fairness and equality, which provided guarantees and basic conditions for courts to resolve various types of cases.Germanic law, which was different from Roman law, usually used duels and brutal methods to settle disputes, which gradually made people lose confidence and interest in these laws.

Roman law laid the foundations of reason and justice, which can effectively protect every member of society.It also freed the king and commoners from the control of feudal lords and avoided the outbreak of feudal wars.It is obvious that Roman law supported the monarchy to a large extent, ensured that the monarchy became a form of government of the nation-state, and promoted the establishment of a unified nation-state.

Roman law is generally adopted in continental Europe, which is called "civil law" by later jurists. As we can see, England has established a complete legal system, and most parts of the United States today follow the British law , only Louisiana still uses ancient Roman law.In Louisiana, the Spaniards and French established the status of Roman law, just as the Spaniards, French and Portuguese also used Roman law in Latin America, so Mexico, Central America, the West Indies and South America, etc. Ancient Roman law still prevails.

In addition, in medieval Europe, canon law was also a very important study subject.

[-]. Students and Student Life
Priests gathered in the Middle Ages, and many students studied in universities.Even at a certain period, the number of students at the University of Paris was overcrowded, reaching 5, and the number of students at Oxford University reached more than 1.Although these figures are not necessarily accurate and may be exaggerated, what is certain is that university education was extremely prosperous at that time.At that time, all university students were classified as priests, even though many people did not become priests after graduation, especially in the late Middle Ages, it was not common for college students to become priests.But college students are considered "priests" and enjoy many privileges as such.For example, college students are managed by the church. They are not restricted by the state power and do not have to pay taxes. Even if they break the law, they can only accept the trial of the church court.Because of this, university life is full of freedom and hope, and it is very attractive to many young people.

Students live in college life. There are different types of students. Some students are very disciplined, while some students live indulgently.As a result, a student's life is filled with joy, hardship and adventure, changing with the rhythm of life's ups and downs.Students can move freely between countries, they are used to this kind of change and travel life, transfer from one university to another, such as studying at the University of Paris for a year or two, then go to Oxford University for a year, and then go to the University of Oxford. Go to the University of Bologna for a year.This kind of experience has enriched college students’ knowledge, giving them the opportunity to travel abroad, take part-time jobs at will, travel freely, ride horses, walk, beg, wade across rivers, or be robbed by robbers.It is true that some students are very wealthy and they will experience rich and varied experiences.At that time, students went to class after dawn, and the atmosphere in the classroom was quiet, and there were few violent emotions, unless there was an argument in class.Most of the students do not have the ability to prepare their own books and teaching materials, they must rely on listening carefully and take notes carefully to acquire knowledge.All students must learn Latin, because Latin is the lingua franca at the university.Physical education in college is less important, but games and mischief are associated with it, and many people would rather go hunting, fencing, ball games, hiking, and these activities are more attractive than physical education.In addition, some students rely on singing to make a living, and they sing some student songs and lyric poems door to door.Since then, a special kind of clothing has gradually emerged and flourished, which is the university's academic uniform and academic cap.

[-]. Science

Medieval theology was called "science".But today, when we talk about the term "science," we usually refer to the natural sciences, such as physics, biology, and chemistry.

Scientific Obstacles The natural sciences of the Middle Ages were not as distinctive as they are today.In some universities, some natural sciences are only taught incidentally when knowledge related to geometry, astronomy or medicine is mentioned.Therefore, natural science is not regarded as a very important subject in the school, and the school does not prepare special equipment for this kind of subject research.

Several things hindered the development of the natural sciences: (1) people were very interested in studying theology and philosophy; (2) the customary way for scholars at that time to know things was deductive, that is, to understand the natural world in terms of what they believed , or draw conclusions based on what they learned in books instead of directly investigating the natural world; (3) Witchcraft and superstition are hostile to science.

Witchcraft and superstition The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in witchcraft and omens. They believed in the flight of birds, the words of oracles, and good and bad days.Even more superstitious were the Germans, Celts, Slavs, and other "barbarians."Centuries later, even if all people became Christians, they still couldn't get rid of those ancient fears and beliefs, and of course they didn't want to get rid of these superstitions at all.As regards belief in superstitions, they have not been or have been any worse than others, yet they have been hindered by these superstitions.If you think it is unlucky to do something on a certain day, you will delay doing a good deed.If you believe in healing with a spell or ritual, you lose your chance to discover a true cure.If doctors still think that the cure for blindness is to swallow some kind of insect whole while saying the Lord's Prayer, what hope is there?

Deductive method Deductive method also needs to be justified, because this method continues to be used today.But medieval scientists relied too much on deduction, on book knowledge.Reasoning things out of what they believe, but rarely experimenting with their beliefs.If they believe that a certain record in a book, or a certain belief is true, and it is true, then the logical deduction derived from its reasoning is absolutely true.But in fact, there are many untested propositions that have been accepted by the public, and people sometimes overestimate the authority.For example, Aristotle was infallible, and medieval scientists agreed that it was so, so certain conclusions must be beyond doubt as long as they are based on Aristotle's words.In many cases, this reasoning procedure appears to be very reliable, but it is not scientific enough.It is also unscientific to rely too much on conclusions that seem reasonable.For example, the conclusion that an iron ball will fall faster than a wooden ball seems reasonable, but scholars did not believe this conclusion until someone used the scientific method to conduct experiments.

Fruitful Mistakes Sometimes unexpected results are the result of mistakes made by scientists.For example, for a long period of time, people believed in the magic of the "touching stone" and "elixir". The "philosopher's stone" was imagined to turn everything into gold if touched; and the "elixir" could make people live forever, or never die.Scientists in the Middle Ages paid a heavy price for discovering the Philosopher's Stone, and at the same time they tried to refine it into an elixir and did countless experiments.Although they ultimately failed, they made some important discoveries they hadn't thought of and invented many good things they didn't intend to find.

The progress of science In the Middle Ages, there was indeed considerable progress in natural science, although scientists in the Middle Ages had ignorance and prejudice, and made many ridiculous mistakes.

To the Greeks and the Arabs, almost everything that the Greeks and Romans knew about nature was learned by medieval scholars, who not only mastered all of Aristotle's knowledge of natural history, but also constantly communicated with the Spanish. The Muslim contacts, and the Greeks in Sicily, and even the Arabs, acquired a great deal of ancient knowledge about astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and geography, and while there were some misconceptions, many were true.

Some knowledge of alchemy and astrology came from the ancients. After the scholars learned it in the Middle Ages, they found that some of them were not scientific enough, so they gradually adjusted their goals and turned these knowledge and subjects into science.Such is the case with astrology and alchemy.The ancients were obsessed with the study of the stars, and the Middle Ages gradually turned astrology into astronomy; while alchemy was mainly for refining the alchemy stone and the elixir of life, and the research on chemicals and metals gradually developed into chemical experiments.It may not be said that astronomy and chemistry were scientifically based and well-established in the Middle Ages, but many intellectual advances were made in the direction of science.

Surgery and Physics Medieval scholars added to and benefited from the knowledge of previous generations.They have made significant contributions in some fields of science.Advances were particularly evident in medical medicine and surgery, but physics, involving mechanics and optics, was equally rewarding.In addition, geographical knowledge also developed extremely rapidly in the Middle Ages.

The scientific method For the verification of scientific goals and scientific methods, scholars in the Middle Ages did provide creative methods and ideas.They suggest that students who study science should go out and observe the natural world carefully, instead of doing analysis and research around books all day long.In addition, the real purpose of science should be to seek the welfare of mankind. In the early 12th century, Adelaide of Bath, an Englishman, traveled all over Spain, Italy, North Africa, and Asia Minor. After his in-depth travel, he stated in detail the process of entering the natural world in his famous book "Problems Concerning the Natural World". view.In addition, he translated Euclid's geometry into Latin, making it more widely disseminated. In the 13th century, another Englishman, Roger Bacon, suggested that no matter what people were studying, they should conduct experiments themselves instead of blindly following Aristotle's conclusions.Since Bacon was a Franciscan monk and also served as a professor at Oxford University and the University of Paris, he had many students and disciples.

Bacon is like a prophet, because he said at that time that through the application of science, people will be able to fly freely in the future, vehicles will no longer need to use horses, and ships will no longer rely on oars and sails for long-distance navigation. Bridges without buttresses will also be erected.

Science in universities Natural science becomes a subject established in universities.Some universities have established medical schools, and the University of Salerno has grown stronger by relying on medical research.In each of the university's liberal arts halls, students study not only astronomy but also mathematics and physics.The scientific research done by Roger Bacon is inextricably linked to the universities of Oxford and Paris.

In the middle ages of invention, there were many novel inventions and applications in applied science, which were the crystallization of many wisdoms.They learned algebra from the Arabs and applied it effectively in various ways.Along with it came the Arabic numerals we are all familiar with today.

There are also amazing contributions and achievements in architecture. The beautiful Gothic architecture is displayed in front of people, and I will slowly talk about this issue in the future.There were also some very useful inventions such as chimney pipes, lead pipes, glass windows, pipe organs and mechanical locks.

Slowly, new dyes also appeared.Humans used tissue paper for the first time, and nautical compasses with magnetic needles were also designed and used.Then gunpowder was introduced to medieval Europe, and by 1350, about three German towns had gunpowder factories.

[-]. Art

Perhaps the most vibrant part of medieval civilization was in the arts, that is, the creation of beautiful things.

Christian art Of course, Christian art is a part that has to be mentioned, it is the most brilliant and dazzling gem in medieval art.Early Christian art mainly absorbed and borrowed from pagan Greece and Rome, but medieval Christian art is mostly unique.

We have already spoken of an important category of medieval art—literary works written in Latin and vernacular, some of which may be called world masterpieces.Medieval art is remarkable in architecture, sculpture, painting, music, embroidery, hangings, and more.

The most impressive thing about church architecture is the architectural art of the Middle Ages. It not only created beautiful and brand-new architectural forms, but also built special churches or monasteries in each diocese and monk society.Every priest built a parish chapel to rival abbeys and cathedrals in size and splendor.The construction of the chapel was enthusiastically supported by the people inside and outside the parish. The rich contributed money, the poor contributed, skilled architects drew designs, and princes, craft guilds, and town councils all worked together, eagerly anticipating the magnificent art they were creating.Builders worked successive generations, often before the birth of architecture, and churches are outstanding and enduring expressions of that age of Christian faith.

Romanesque architecture Medieval churches mainly used two architectural forms: Romanesque architecture and Gothic architecture.Romanesque architecture arose from ancient Roman architecture, just as "Romanse" was the language that developed from Romance.Romanesque architectural art developed in Italy and spread to Germany, Normandy and England in the 11th and 12th centuries. In addition to imitation, there were also bold innovations.Romanesque churches are usually built in the shape of a cross, with a long palace, two short transepts, and a semicircular apse, with a rounded arch on the roof, doorways, and small windows.The most fascinating of the Romanesque architecture is probably Pisa's cathedral and the famous Leaning Tower.

Gothic architecture Gothic architecture in the 12th century originated in France and was later imitated throughout Western Europe. Although it still focuses on maintaining the architectural design of the cross, it also has its own characteristics. Unlike the spire of Romanesque architecture, Gothic architecture uses Spires, that is, pointed roofs with sloping ridges instead of domes.Another novel feature of Gothic architecture is the arch column, which is a large stone pillar about half the length of a pointed arch. It can be placed outside to strengthen the wall. In this way, the wall can be built higher and thinner, and the windows The area can also be opened larger.Spires and arches add a bit of thickness and elegance to Gothic architecture.

Among the vast and exquisite medieval Gothic architecture, the representative works are Amiens, Chatelet, Paris and Reims cathedrals, as well as Milan, Toledo, Cologne, York Minster, and the famous cathedral built by Louis IX. Sainte-Chapelle in Paris and Westminster Abbey in London.

Medieval churches, especially Gothic churches, are richly decorated with carvings and paintings, hangings, carved joinery and stained-glass windows, all intended to teach people and to teach people with religious zeal and thanksgiving. Heart moves them.During the daily liturgy, the rich altar is illuminated by candles flickering among fragrant flowers, crosses and gold and silverware. There are also religious paintings, flags and hangings hanging under the windows.The interior of the church is a prayer in itself, while the exterior guides people inside to pray with steeples and towering steeples.

Other uses of Gothic architecture Gothic architecture was originally developed for building churches, but in the Middle Ages, it was also used in private buildings, guilds, feudal castles and imperial palaces, etc. These buildings are also often used Carving, painting and hanging curtains to decorate.

Sculpture and painting Medieval sculpture is exquisite, but occasionally shows a rough side, some of which are deliberately made to be ridiculous, but most of them are intended to give people religious enlightenment.Giotto (1266-1337) was an Italian painter, contemporary with Dante, whose works made painting reach the pinnacle of development in the Middle Ages.His painting art is famous for its simplicity and simplicity, clear and bright coloring, and vivid and outstanding characters.His paintings of scenes from the life of St. Francis of Assisi survive to this day and are considered his greatest works.

The Middle Ages also produced many other types of artistic styles: such as "golden mud colored" manuscripts, gorgeous vestments of priests, bright and beautiful costumes of nobles, and exquisite furniture.

Music churches and troubadours promoted the development of music, and a Benedictine monk named Guido in the 11th century initiated our system of musical notation.He selected a Christian hymn praising John the Baptist, and then used the first syllables of six lines as the first six notes of the scale—do, re, mi, fa, sol, la.Pipe organs were also installed in medieval churches, similar to those in ancient Greece and Rome.The lute was also modified by the troubadours, and a special system of musical notation was created for it.A large number of hymns in the Catholic and Anglican churches today, as well as many folk songs we are familiar with, have their forms derived from the Middle Ages.

(End of this chapter)