A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 19 The Renaissance of Ancient Literature and Art

[-]. A new interest in the old classics

A new interest, not a new subject Europeans in the Middle Ages and even in the Dark Ages never abandoned or completely forgotten the classical civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome.Ancient languages ​​are still used in church services, Latin in Western Europe and Greek in Eastern Europe.Romanesque churches still use ancient buildings as architectural models.The many words written in words and the many arches made of stones remind us of "the glory of Greece and the majesty of Rome" all the time.

From the 14th century to the 17th century, classical Greco-Roman civilization was revived.Previously, European Christians had relegated classical languages, literature and art to a secondary status, treating them only as means to more important ends, such as liturgy, church architecture and theological and philosophical studies.Now they read Latin and Greek for their own sake, that is, they find them useful and agreeable.They also found new and interesting things in Greek and Latin writings, and took a new interest in them.They recognize the undoubted but long neglected value of the classics.

The revival of classical literature The new interest in the old classics is the so-called "classical renaissance", or "Renaissance".It mainly focuses on the famous works of ancient Latin and Greek literature, and "a sympathetic and enthusiastic inquiry into classical literature".This kind of inquiry became a fashion, even a craze.And this inquiry invites admiration, even reverence, in all forms of the graceful features of antiquity.In sum, the revival of classical literature developed into the general adoption of ancient models in speech and art, and literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting represented a regression of medieval culture.

Great pioneers In the process of revival of classical literature and art, the first great pioneer was the Italian Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374).Petrarch spent his childhood in Tuscany and served in the Holy See in Avignon in his youth.Petrarch preached the restoration and imitation of classical literature, and he was famous in Western Europe as "the only scholar".The pope provided him with funds, and the kings competed to give him large rewards.The Senate of Venice granted him the rights of a citizen of the city.The University of Paris and the city of Rome crowned him with laurels.

In this way, sponsors embrace the pioneers. Another forerunner in the 14th century was another Italian, Boccaccio. In the 15th century, starting from Italy, most Western European scholars in other countries followed in the footsteps of Petrarch and Boccaccio.

Scholars from the East Around 1400, due to the pressure of the Muslim Turks on the world of the Byzantine Empire, a large number of Greek scholars and teachers left Constantinople and Greece, crossed the Adriatic Sea, and settled in Italy.One of them, Crisolola, founded a famous school in Florence where he taught Homer to many students.The dusty attic became the center of attention.Castles and monasteries were searched for ancient manuscripts, and writings long lost or forgotten were rediscovered.Some of them are the works of Tacitus, Cicero, Quintilian, and Lucretius.

The study of classical literature was not only the profession of scholars, but also became the fashion of princes.Many wealthy gentlemen assisted and financed the "New Learning".

Clergy's Attitude Initially, the exploration of the classics aroused suspicion and even opposition from pious priests, who feared that the non-Christian elements in the classics would have a dangerous influence on the Christian Church.But the "new learning" was gradually tolerated, then encouraged, and finally assisted by the clergy.Pope Nicholas V was an excellent classical scholar and a generous patron.He hired thousands of people to copy ancient manuscripts and offered rewards for the translation of Homer's epic poems.His Vatican court also has a large collection of classical books.

Many of his successors shared his attitude.Indeed, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, under the auspices of Pope Leo X, "New Learning" rose to its zenith of glory.Leo X was the son of Lorenzo de' Medici, the wealthy and elegant leader of Florence.Leo X was not only the sponsor of "New Learning", but also the model of "New Learning".

[-]. Italy - Schools in Europe
Just as Athens was the "school of Greece" in the time of Pericles, so Italy in the sixteenth century became the "school of Europe."Interest in the old classics revived in Italy, where Petrarch, Boccaccio, and other forerunners, and many early patrons, lived.Many Greek scholars and teachers relocated to Italy when the Turks invaded Constantinople.Many of the great works of literature, architecture, and art that characterize this period were created in Italy.The teachers of "New Learning" and "New Art" in other Western European countries also came from Italy.Students and scholars from all over the West traveled to Italy to draw on its rich sources.

In the first half of the 16th century, the climax of classical literature research reached its peak in Italy and spread to other countries.In France, the kings encouraged "new learning", especially Francis I (1515-1547), who repeatedly intervened in Italian politics and wars, and brought scholars, artists and excellent works of ancient times back to France.In England, during the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII, all universities and many clergy and public officials, including the famous lawyer Sir Thomas More, supported the "New Learning".More's main literary work, the world-famous "Utopia", is based on Plato's "Republic".

Around the same time, Germany, Spain, Scandinavia, and Poland also recognized the "new learning" and studied diligently.

Erasmus In the early 16th century, the first classical scholar was Erasmus (1469-1536).Originally from Rotterdam, the Netherlands, he traveled a lot during a long and studious life.He lives regularly in Germany, France, England, Italy and Switzerland.He also had a theological education and became a priest, but he was known as a lover of the classics and as a prolific writer.

Erasmus was not as strict with himself as Petrarch, but he was a more outstanding international figure than Petrarch.He corresponded with every important writer of his time, and had personal friendships with Pope Leo X, Emperor Charles V, Francis I of France, and Henry VIII of England.He compiled and published a very academic Greek "New Testament".His works "Ode to Madness", "Proverbs" and "The Eloquent" are full of puns and witticisms. In the book, he ridicules superstition and prejudice, criticizes ignorance, and praises classical literature and classical academic life.

From the center to the periphery In the 15th and 16th centuries, Italy became the center of Western European culture.Many royals of fine courts and wealthy city dwellers made it a point of honor to sponsor the flourishing arts, writing dictionaries and grammars in the meantime.The study of ancient authors was made easier by translations and exegesis; the classical Latin style became the characteristic mark of the cultivated man.At first new educational institutes were established only in Italy, but later in other European countries as well.In the process of dissemination of "new learning", Germany's influence was second only to Italy because of its geographical location close to Italy and frequent exchanges with it.

[-]. Outcomes of the Classical Renaissance
Now to summarize the results of the study of classical literature.

The curriculum enriches the curriculum of secondary schools, colleges and universities with the addition of inquiry and lectures in Latin and Greek.From the fifteenth century to the present, Caesar, Cicero, Virgil, Xenophon, and Homer have held respected places in education.

Humanism The Renaissance gave birth to "humanism," the compassionate study of human beings, very different from the devoted study of theology in the Middle Ages.Because of the firm belief that the classical literature of Greece and Latin is purely human.The researchers of the new culture were called "humanists," and their favorite subjects of study were called "the humanities."

The antiquity Renaissance tends to admire the ancient times and ignore the culture of the Middle Ages.In this sense, the new study of the old classics is regressive.It prompts people's minds to turn to an earlier time in the past.The result is a return to the Greco-Roman past, rather than to the recent past, for models of art and science, society and politics, diplomacy and war, and ordinary human behavior. The kings of the 15th and 16th centuries got the theory of absolute monarchy from ancient times.Machiavelli wrote a guide to the princes, asking the princes not to be limited by daily morality when dealing with political affairs.Parents name their children not from characters in the Bible and Christian sages, but from celebrities who do not believe in Christianity—Caesar, Cato, Virgil, Aeneas, Plutarch, Homer, Solon, Pericles, Diana, Julia, Augusta, and Lucrece all became popular.

The decline of Christianity The effect of the Renaissance on Christianity was strange and conflicting.On the one hand, it enriched the cultures of Christian peoples. In the 16th century, there was a rebellion against the authority of the church in Northern Europe, and the humanists still remained loyal to the church and the pope.Some of them, including Sir Thomas More, died for their religion.

On the other hand, some influences of the new study of the old classics contradicted traditional Christian morality and weakened the Church.Humanism in its extreme form is hostile to self-denial and self-sacrifice.Some church figures, including bishops and several popes, have become secularized.Many humanists scorned theology and attacked the monastic life.They cast doubt on people's minds about some of the beliefs and practices of the church.There are also a small number of humanists who have fundamental doubts about the truth and value of Christianity itself.

Stimulation of native languages ​​Humanism indirectly stimulated the development of native language literature.Many people did not know how to write in the difficult classical Latin language, but used the Latin vernacular at that time to write, and worried about being ridiculed by others, they used Italian, French, English, German or other native languages.

Scientific humanism in historical research makes historical inquiry more rigorous and scientific.History is concerned more for its own great value than as a mere ancillary to theology, advocating the development of a more precise and rigorous spirit, and many other historical manuscripts have been found.

Progressive humanism in the arts led to a focus on classical architecture, painting, and sculpture, which in turn greatly advanced the arts.

[-]. Literature and Art
In literature, architecture, sculpture and painting—all fields of art, we see the most glorious and long-standing influence of the Classical Renaissance.During this period, not only were the masterpieces of the past rediscovered and imitated, but new and important works appeared.These new works combine pagan and Christian elements, creating artistic connections between ancient times and the Middle Ages, and between the Middle Ages and modern times.

Petrarch and his immediate successors both wrote in Latin.During this period, many Latin works were published, but not all of them had permanent literary value.For a period in the 15th century, the Classical Renaissance seemed to prevent writings in the vernacular.But then, especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, new and important works appeared in the native language by Tasso, Cervantes, Camões, Racine, Shakespeare, Milton, and others.So the Classical Renaissance developed in many ways.After a lamp is lit, it is radiant.

Italian and German Writers In Italy and Germany there was a revival of classical literature, but the 16th century did not produce the great vernacular writers as in other countries.Still, some standouts emerged.Machiavelli wrote historical works in Italian, among which "The Prince" is a guide book for princes.Ariosto also wrote an everlasting poem in Italian, The Wrath of Orlando.Tasso's epic epic "The Salvation of Jerusalem" was also written in Italian.

In the same century, Martin Luther in Germany made a considerable contribution to German literature by translating the Bible into German.

Spanish and Portuguese writers appeared almost at the same time, and Spanish and Portuguese writers emerged in large numbers, and the Spanish literature written in the Castilian dialect was more colorful.Cervantes, one of the greatest writers of all ages, mocked the feudal system and decadent knight system in the medieval period in his immortal work "Don Quixote".Lope de Vega wrote some 1800 plays and virtually established the Spanish theater world.Calderon composed very valuable fables.

During this time, the "Song of the Luzitanians" written by Camões brought Portuguese literature into its heyday.This work is a patriotic epic about the miraculous voyage and deeds of Vasco da Gama. The Song of the Luzitanians reminds us of its many parallels to Virgil's Aeneid, and there is no doubt that this great classic influenced Camões.The Spanish writers mentioned above were familiar with the norms of classical literature, but they expressed art in vernacular.

In the 16th century, the French writer Rabelais, who was clever and good at irony, created "Giant", which is more like a non-Christian than a Christian.This compilation of bold fantasy tales combines rare finesse with rather crude humor.In the 17th century, French literature shined brilliantly because of the excellent works of Corneille, Racine, Molière, Madame Sévigné, and Lafontaine, and entered the "golden age".The influence of classical literature created the "golden age" of French literature, but the French writers mentioned above all wrote in French.

British writers In 1551, the English version of Sir Thomas More's "Utopia" appeared in England; in 1667, Milton's famous epic "Paradise Lost" was published.Great literary works in English continued to emerge during this period: Cranmer's "Book of Common Prayer" and "Bible" translated by King James, Edmund Spencer's wonderful "Fairy Queen", Ben The plays of Jonson and Christopher Marlowe, the essays of Francis Bacon and the incomparable Shakespeare plays, among others.In terms of subject matter or form, they have shown that they have been influenced by classical literature and humanism, but they all use English to create.

Renaissance Architecture Under the influence of the Classical Renaissance, Christian architecture underwent a revolution and developed significantly.The simple lines of the Greek temple or the graceful and soft curves of the Roman dome replaced the towering Gothic architecture; The Ionic and Corinthian forms were adopted again.All kinds of buildings present "Classical Renaissance" or "Renaissance" architectural styles, especially the huge St. Peter's Church in Rome.This church was built in the 16th century under the personal guidance of some great artists, such as Raphael and Michelangelo.

The revival of Greek and Roman architecture in Italy and other countries, like the revival of Greek and Latin literature, originated in Italy and was generally accepted by Italians.Classical architecture, like the humanism of literature, spread to other countries.In France, the kings, especially Francis I, favored classical architecture and employed many Italian architects.Therefore, many public buildings in France are classical buildings.A prime example is the famous Louvre, today one of the largest art museums in the world.

After 1550, the classical architectural style was introduced to Spain and was encouraged by King Philip II.Around the same time, it spread to the Netherlands and Germany.After that, classical architectural styles also appeared in Britain.The banquet hall in Whitehall is classical in style and was designed and built by a famous architect Inigo Jones in 1619.In London in the second half of the same century, Sir Christopher Wren built a majestic St. Paul's Cathedral, and new architectural styles prevailed in Britain.

Sculpture in the Renaissance Sculpture changed with architecture all the way.Humanism was evident in Italian sculpture as early as the 14th century.In the 15th century, the Medici of Florence developed a special interest in classical forms, becoming not only an avid collector of ancient art, but also an advocate of scientific inquiry into sculpture. The Italian plastic arts of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries bear striking parallels with the Athenian art of the fifth and fourth centuries BC.

Famous sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti was the first great exponent of "new sculpture" in the 15th century.His impressive bronze doors, carved in the Baptist Church in Florence, are called "the gates worthy of Paradise".Younger than Ghiberti was Donatello, who sculpted a lifelike statue of San Marco in Venice.Known for his pure classicism and austere style, della Robbia founded the school of enamelled ceramic figurines of sculpture.Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter and architect at the same time, creating many masterpieces.His David, carved at Florence, is a noble and fine classic.

The wind of classical sculpture spread outside Italy faster than that of classical architecture.Italian sculptors were invited to England by Henry VII and to France by Francis I.In Spain, the tombs of Ferdinand and Isabella are classically carved.Indeed, in the sixteenth century "new engraving" spread throughout Western Europe.

Advances in Painting Painting has undergone more significant innovations than sculpture.Before the 16th century, most of them were frescoes, that is, paintings painted directly on the stucco wall, and very few were painted on wooden panels.By the 16th century, however, easel painting, that is, single-sheet painting on canvas, wood, or other materials, had become very common, and artists also mastered the use of oil paint.Because of the emergence of new methods, the art of painting gradually perfected and developed.

During this period, the advances in painting were not the result of the imitation of classical models, as in sculpture and architecture.Because paintings are among the most short-lived works of art, with very few ancient examples remaining.Therefore, in the absence of classical non-Christian art models, painting must be more innovative and retain a more thorough Christianity.As the painters of this period were of supremely intelligent genius, painting attained a higher degree of perfection than all other arts.

Four Great Painters In the 16th century, there were four of the world's greatest painters active in Italy: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian.The latter two are mainly painters, and the first two have outstanding performances in architecture and sculpture.

Leonardo da Vinci Da Vinci (1452-1519) was born in Florence and received training from an early age. He has successively received support and assistance from the Sforza family in Milan, the Medici family in Florence and the French royal family.He is a scientific painter who earnestly studies the human body, the ratio of distance and near, and grasps the degree of light and shade and color.His painting "Mona Lisa" is now displayed in the Louvre in Paris, and his mural "The Last Supper" created in Milan is also quite famous.As an engineer, Leonardo also built a canal in northern Italy and built forts around Milan.He was also a musician, philosopher and craftsman with a penchant for mechanical design.One day when the King of France visited Milan, he saw a huge robotic lion. After the lion roared, it stood up on its hind legs, with the national coat of arms of France on its chest.This is the work of Da Vinci.

Da Vinci has many works, and many disciples gathered around him.In his later years, Da Vinci accepted the pension given to him by Francis I and lived in France.In France, as in Italy, he advocated the art of painting.His influence on the time was perhaps more profound than that of any other artist.He was a role model for that era.This kind of comprehensive and "complete" man who is interested in all aspects of culture is the ideal of the Renaissance.

Michelangelo Michelangelo (1475-1564), a Florentine like Leonardo, was another artist unique in every field.We can almost say that he is "a doctor who knows everything and knows everything".He is a first-class painter, a master sculptor, a great architect, an excellent engineer, a lovely poet and a superb scholar of anatomy and physiology.He lived both in Florence and in Rome throughout his life, serving the Medici family and several art-loving popes.It is not possible to give a detailed account of his achievements here.The tomb of Pope Julius II and the famous statue of David in Florence are both his masterpieces in sculpture.The Basilica of St. Peter in Rome was in fact completed by him and becomes his most enduring monument.The frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican are a well-known marvel; in the same chapel, his great fresco, The Last Judgment, is perhaps the most famous painting in the world.

Raphael Sanzio Raphael (1483-1520) died at the age of 37, but his harmonious beauty of painting surpassed that of Michelangelo.In terms of sheer glamour, the "magic" Raphael is unparalleled in the world.He lived most of his life in Rome, was wealthy and respected, and was for a time the architect of St. Peter's.He also produced some engravings, but he is primarily known as the greatest painter of the 16th century.

Titian Tiziano Vecellio (1477-1576), known as Titian, lived to be 99 years old and is the chief representative of Venetian painting.Venetian painting is characterized by bright colors.Titian was the official painter of the city of Venice, supported and assisted by the Spanish emperors Charles V and Philip II.He achieved wealth and honor, but he was not a generalist like Leonardo da Vinci or Michelangelo.His only and highest talent is in oil painting, and his works have never been surpassed in the bewitching power of light and color.

Painting in other countries centered on Italy, and the "new painting" became the inheritance of the whole of Western Europe.Francis I invited Italian painters to France, and French painters became their students.Philip II of Spain also strongly advocated painting, and his successors hired some famous painters, such as Rubens, Van Dyck, Velazquez and Murillo.

In Germany, the best representative of painting is Albrecht Dürer, who took inspiration from Italian works.He had the support and assistance of the Emperor Maximilian, and was in friendship with all the great painters of his day.He painted a portrait of Erasmus.But he is not known as a painter, but especially as a carver and wood engraver.His greatest engravings, such as "The Warrior and Death" and "Saint Jorome in His Study", set the example for future generations of engravers.

The 16th and 17th centuries were the entire "golden age" of Christian painting, which was mainly Christian in terms of subject matter and treatment.But without the classical Renaissance and humanism, it would be difficult to achieve perfection, and the same is true for music.

Renaissance music When it comes to music, the "Golden Age" began in Western Europe in the 16th century.At that time, crude instruments from the Middle Ages began to transform into modern forms, with more melodious tones.The crude shamisen became the violin, and the harpsichord was the precursor to the modern piano.Master composer Palestrina (1524-1594), as organist and choir conductor, is honored as "the father of modern church music".He had a very marked direct influence on the music of seventeenth-century Italy and the brilliant German compositions of the eighteenth century.

Natural Science The humanists of the 15th and 16th centuries generally despised the natural sciences.In a sense, the classical Renaissance brought the natural sciences to a standstill.However, in the natural sciences, as described in Chapter 20, medieval Western Europe was more advanced than ancient Greece and Rome.As we shall see in the next chapter, science and invention in the sixteenth century were at the dawn of a glorious day.

(End of this chapter)