A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 22 The Resurrection of the Despotism

[-]. General factors

In Chapter 19, we have seen that the power of medieval kings was not absolute, they were subject to various restrictions, such as feudalism, political rebellion, frequent elections, various charters and parliaments.Between the 14th and 17th centuries regimes varied greatly: limited monarchies in many countries developed into absolutism, or unlimited monarchies.

In medieval Europe, democracies and monarchies looked as if they were basically equals.The facts, however, show that in most countries democracies must give way to monarchies.This chapter intends to show why this is so.

Influence of the Crusades The Crusades had a certain relationship with advancing the development of the monarchy.Because it brought the rulers of Western Christian countries into contact with the East, where despotism had long been the accepted form of government.Not only the kings, but also the nobles, knights and commoners who joined the Crusaders often heard about absolute monarchy, which more or less had a psychological impact.

Concessions of the Church During the Middle Ages, the Christian Church held back the development of the power of absolute kings.But in the centuries that followed, the church gradually tolerated the kings, recognized their power, and eventually helped.The church strives to use "God's peace", "God's truce" and other methods to limit those unscrupulous feudal nobles.While the church prevented private melee and weakened feudal forces, it consolidated the power of the king, because the church believed that the king was the protector of the good order of feudal society.Later, when the church was burdened by internal malpractice and criticized by external, it felt the need to draw close to the king and endorse the king's proposition.The clergy also generally embraced royal despotism.

The support of the middle class The rapid development of the middle class and the heartfelt support of the king are the obvious characteristics of this period.The middle classes are the wealthy and the intelligent, who have made their fortunes through industry and trade.The king met the interests and needs of the middle class, protected the safety of merchants, and supported commercial development.In turn, the middle class served the king.They support and assist the monarchy.At the same time, it also sent legal experts and efficient officials to the king, funded the government, and provided manpower for the army.

Nationality and the power of the King's Crusade have made weak nations grow stronger, the charm of languages ​​and literature of various nations has inspired national pride, and the germination of nationalism is becoming stronger and stronger in Western European countries.Due to frequent international wars, national character is rapidly active.The people of England, France, and Spain gradually united them in a deep sense of loyalty to the power structures and individuals who made them members of a great nation.Today people cheer the flag to express their patriotism, but then they cheered the king to express their patriotism.Patriotism helped the king become an absolute monarch.

The revival of Roman law was based on a fundamental principle of Roman law that the sovereign or ruler of a country had the power to make laws or violate them at will.As part of the classical Renaissance, the study of Roman law followed suit.Bologna and other universities offered courses in Roman law.Legal experts who had studied Roman law also used Roman law to serve their kings.

Machiavelli's "The Prince" The famous Italian statesman Machiavelli in his political treatises, especially in the book "The Prince", once advocated the principle that the king is higher than the law and the parliament.Despite the protests of the church, Machiavelli's book remained popular, and many aspiring rulers followed his advice.

Firearms Firearms made infantry more lethal than cavalry with spears, or even armored cavalry with spears.Kings began to maintain standing armies of mercenaries, and provided them with cannon and muskets.Military power turned kings into masters of feudal lords and of subjects of all classes.

Each of the following sections will attempt to describe some of the factors that favored the rise of despotism.

[-]. The Weakness of the Church
As mentioned earlier, during the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church was powerful and influential.It is not only responsible for religion and morality, but also does a lot of administrative work.In the centuries that followed, from the 14th to the 17th centuries, the influence and authority of the church, although still very great, were significantly weakened.The weakness of the church was one of the factors favoring the rise of despotism.We now turn to what it is that weakens the church.

The Crusades The Crusades were ultimately a reflection of the detriment of the Church and especially the Pope. In the 12th century, when the Crusades were ups and downs and victorious, the popes who launched the Crusades received high honors; but in the 13th and 14th centuries, the crusades were low and failed, and the popes lost their honor accordingly.

Too Many "Crusaders" Crusaders against the Muslims failed to hold their ground, thus damaging the pope's political credibility.There are also many good people who finally feel that the Crusaders have been led astray, that some worthless goals have been used.For example, in the struggle between church and state, the crusaders were incited to rebel against the Holy Roman Emperor and some Christian princes.This makes the Crusaders vulgar and suspicious.Many loyal members of the church feel that they are being used by purely political conspiracy, so they refuse to pay attention to the various calls and instructions issued by the church.A British monk commented on this: "When the believers heard this call, they wondered that the pope promised them the same reward for shedding the blood of the Christians as he had promised to fight the blood of the unbelievers. .”

The burden of money For the crusaders who went to the Holy Land, the pope issued them indulgences, which was to promise them special care after death.In order to raise the cost of the Crusade, the Pope began to issue indulgences to those who did not go to the battlefield but only donated money.At the same time, tithes (an income tax) were levied on priests and church tenants.However, some of the money was not spent on the Crusades, but on other things.When the Crusades are not fighting, money taxes are still collected.The pope became accustomed to profligacy, so the types and amounts of church taxes collected gradually increased.Most unfortunate of all, some popes were worldly and incompetent.Of course not all popes are like this, most of them are upright and sincere.However, it is difficult for a competent pope to offset the bad influence of an incompetent pope.In any case, the tax system of the church became more and more onerous and less and less popular.

Failure of Political Advocacy The decline of the church was not only due to the failure of the Crusades and the people's abhorrence of heavy financial burdens, but also due to political quarrels between the church and secular rulers.Since King Philip IV of France defeated Pope Boniface VIII, no pope has seriously made such an extreme claim.The majority ultimately agreed with Dante's suggestion that the sphere of the Church was religion and morality, not politics.This opinion did not diminish the spiritual authority of the church, but it did weaken its political power, and the chief beneficiaries were the kings of the nations.

"Babylonian exile" As mentioned earlier, the successor pope after Boniface VIII lived in France.For almost 1309 years, from 1377 to 70, they all lived in Avignon.These popes are kind in themselves, but outside of France, people believe that they are just tools of the French king.Their time in Avignon is known as the "Babylonian Exile", or "Babylonian Imprisonment".As such, they are likened to the Hebrews who had been exiled and imprisoned in the ancient city of Babylon for 70 years.

The Italians, of course, were extremely resentful of the Popes' prolonged stay at Avignon.The Roman populace rebelled under Rienzi in 1347 and formed a new government of the republic.The government he established was both democratic and national.The establishment of the new government was a challenge to the pope as well as to the rulers of Italy.Rienzi was killed in 1354 and his government was destroyed, but Italy still proved to have a very deep national and anti-pope feeling.

Finally, in 1377, because of the pleading and coercion of the nun Caitlin of Siena, the Pope returned to Rome from Avignon, and the "Babylonian exile" came to an end.

The Great Schism But the "Great Schism" produced worse effects than the "Babylonian exile".From 1378 to 1417, there were two opposing popes, one in Rome and the other in Avignon, known as the "Great Schism" in history.The division also created hostile lineups among the nations.France, Scotland, Savoy, Spain, and Portugal supported the Pope of Avignon; while Italy, Germany, England, Hungary, Poland, and others sided with the Pope.The schism ended in 1417, but since then the power of the pope has been relatively weakened and that of the king has been relatively strengthened.

Within a generation or two after the Great Schism, many felt that the Synod should have a higher authority than the Pope.As a result, the "Religious Synod Movement" broke out. Although the movement failed soon, it also played a role in splitting and weakening the church during the movement.

Three Hundred Years' War

During the period of "Babylonian Exile" and "Great Church Schism", the king of England and the king of France launched a long struggle, known as the "Hundred Years War" in history.It was not one war but a series of wars, sometimes won by one side and sometimes the other, that lasted for over a century from 1337 to 1453.

Enemies in feudalism Since the days of William I and Henry II, English kings have always been regarded as vassals of the French king because they occupied or claimed rights to some lands in France.These feudal relationships were the source of endless conflict.The English kings tried to shake off the suzerainty of the French kings, who were constantly wary of curtailing their power.For example, the kings of France helped Scotland rebel against England and restricted the trade of the British in Flanders.

The proximate cause of the war was that King Philip VI of France announced in 1337 that the two duchies of Gascony and Guiyan, which the King occupied in France as fiefdoms, had been confiscated by him according to law.He declared war on Great Britain and sent a fleet to attack Great Britain.King Edward III of England immediately fabricated a legal claim to the French throne.He formed an alliance with Philip VI's ambitious vassals for a decisive battle.

The first phase of Britain's Victorious War was from 1337 to 1360, when Edward III and his talented young son Edward the "Black Prince" attacked France and won two brilliant victories - Crecy (1346) and Garcia Come (1347).In 1348, a terrible plague called the "Black Death" swept across Europe, and the war temporarily stopped.Then Britain won the victory in Poitiers in 1356, and signed the contract in Brettney in 1360, stipulating that Edward III gave up his claim to the French throne, but got half of France south of the Loire River. and the northern seaport of Calais; these lands were not fiefdoms of the King of France, but were owned as absolute estates.

The second phase of the Hundred Years' War for the Reconquista began with the invasion of England in 1369 by a new French king.This time the French had the upper hand.They had an able general and took full advantage of the weaknesses of the British monarchy. In 1395, the two sides signed an armistice agreement.England retained Calais and a strip of land along the coast from Bordeaux to Bayonne, but gave up other territories in France; the English king also married the French king's daughter.

Henry V and Agencourt The strength and ambition of England took advantage of the weakness and confusion of France and entered the third phase of the war from 1415 to 1420.King Charles VI of France was mentally ill, and his feudal vassals were desperate to take advantage of the situation.King Henry V of England was both brave and wise.He declared war on France again, invaded France, and claimed the right to inherit the French throne, defeating the French at the Battle of Agencourt in 1415.He also conquered Normandy and swept across the south of France.Charles VI sued him, and in 1420 Henry ordered the Treaty of Troyes almost entirely in his favour.According to this treaty, Henry got a lot of land in France; and after the death of Charles VI, Henry was able to become the king of France, and he could marry (later actually married) Charles VI's daughter Catherine as his wife.

But things are unpredictable.Both Henry V and Charles VI died in 1422.Although Henry's young child, Henry VI, was declared king of England and France, many French refused.They were closely united around the son of Charles VI.

So Joan of Arc, the fourth phase of the war begins.The French who supported Charles VI's son Charles VII were initially a minority, and they lost many battles during the long seven years.At this time Joan of Arc appeared.She didn't swing a sword, but just held a white flag in her hand.The French were willing to follow her, and she led them to victory.She expelled the English from Orleans in 7, and soon after she expelled the English from Reims and elsewhere.Later, she crowned Charles VII in Reims Cathedral, where the French kings were crowned.This became the pinnacle of her life.

It was a glorious day for Joan of Arc and for France.But at the time, not all French people were on her side.She fell into British hands the following year.A Norman court sympathetic to the English sentenced her to death, and she was burned at the stake in Rouen in 1431.

But the spirit of Joan of Arc has affected the whole of France.Her devotion to France united the French people.Towns and provinces occupied by the British were lost one after another.The Hundred Years' War ended in 1453.This war began as a feudal war, but ended with a national war. The patriotic French were united around the King of France like a rock.In the end, only Calais remained in British hands.

The protracted war increased the national sentiments of France and England, and at the same time promoted the development of absolutism.The kings of both countries enjoy the heartfelt support of their subjects, and their armies are now composed mainly of commoners rather than nobles and knights.

[-]. The rise of autocratic regimes in Britain, France and other countries

To some extent, the Hundred Years' War indirectly promoted the development of the autocratic regimes of Britain and France.Britain was followed by a series of civil wars, the Wars of the Red and White Roses, which directly contributed to the rise of the British autocracy.

The War of the Roses The War of the Roses lasted from 1453 to 1485. It was a struggle for the throne between two opposing royal families, the Lancaster and York families.All noble families in the kingdom choose to support one of the royal families.

Henry V's father, Henry IV, was the first Lancaster king.He usurped the throne and became king. One reason Henry V declared war on France again in 1415 was to want his subjects to forget this fact.Indeed, they forgot this fact when they cheered the victory of Agencourt.And when Henry V was alive, the British recognized his achievements and rarely mentioned this fact.But many disaffected Britons were shaken during the long, inactive reign of his son Henry VI.They remembered Henry IV's usurpation; they saw Henry VI's misgovernment in England; and they regarded his surrender to the French in 1453 as a disgrace.

But that doesn't mean the British have lost faith in the monarchy, it just means that many Brits are asking a few questions about the Lancastrian lineage.So when the Duke of York took the throne, he found many friends and supporters.The long bloody struggle between the Houses of York and House Lancaster became known as the Wars of the Roses, so named after the red roses used by the Houses of Lancaster and the white roses of House York.

Event Summary After the fierce battle, the York family abolished Lancaster's King Henry VI and established their own family as King Edward IV (1461). Ten years later, in 10, the House of York won a decisive victory at the Battle of Tewkesbury, killing Henry VI.Edward IV was a powerful king, and in the later part of his reign, he kept the Lancasters calm.He died in 1471, and his two young sons were imprisoned in the Tower of London, where they were murdered by their uncle, who usurped the throne as Richard III.

But Richard III was the last king of the House of York.His usurpation, his brutality and ruthlessness were fatal to the cause of the York family.A Henry Tudor of Lancaster, again waving the banner of the red rose, defeated and killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485.

On the battlefield, the winner is crowned King Henry VII.He was the first king of the great Tudor line, but he was of Lancastrian descent.He united the red and white roses by virtue of his marriage to Elizabeth of York.He spent a decade or more fighting the embers of a long war.

The impact on the autocratic regime The War of the Roses eliminated a large number of domineering feudal lords and aroused the middle class's desire for a strong and stable government.This contributed to the development of the British autocracy.Tudor monarchs knew how to make themselves, in fact, monarchs worthy of the name.They became almost absolute rulers.

Henry VII During his reign from 1485 to 1509, Henry VII contained the nobility, took tough measures to rule the entire country, and tried every means to consolidate the power of the royal family.He created a new court, the Star Chamber.When it tried cases, there was no jury, and the new court became an effective tool in the hands of the king.He still held parliaments from time to time, but managed to lower their role in the government.He rewarded trade, expanded his navy, and tried to avoid war.He gained prestige abroad by wise diplomacy and by marrying his children to some princes and daughters, not by war.He married a daughter to the king of Scotland, and a son to a Spanish princess.

During the reign of Henry VII, Columbus and Cabot discovered America.

Autocracy After the Hundred Years' War in France, the French autocracy also developed rapidly.Some exciting things happened during the reign of King Charles VII from 1422 to 1461, such as the astonishing event of Joan of Arc, the upsurge of national patriotism, the expulsion of the British and the He benefited greatly from the reunification of the people under the authority of a single monarch.These events make the people more loyal to the king, and even a mediocre king can almost do whatever he wants.Charles collected taxes without consulting the House of Commons, and he created a loyal standing army of professional soldiers.

Louis XI and Burgundy King Louis XI of France, who reigned from 1461 to 1483, was less graceful than his father Charles VII in terms of spirit and appearance, but as the founder of an autocratic regime, he He became the greatest king of France.He spent his whole life weakening the feudal lords, and killed some feudal lords without too much effort through various methods such as bribery and plunder.After a bitter struggle with the Duke of Burgundy, he finally made the Duchy of Burgundy a real part of France.By marrying his son to a Breton heiress, he paved the way for the complete annexation of the Duchy of Burgundy.

Absolutism continued In the next century, in the 16th century, religious schisms and civil wars restored the power of the French feudal lords for a time, but this was only temporary.In the 15th century, France's autocratic regime was deeply entrenched and difficult to overthrow quickly.Until the 17th and 18th centuries, the French autocracy reached a very high level.

Despotism in Spain In Spain, during the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella, despotism replaced the feudal system. They were of the same era as Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France.The final victory over the Muslims in Spain and the discovery of America put the monarchy in glory.Ferdinand and Isabella used the ecclesiastical court of the Inquisition as a tool of Spanish despotism, just as Henry VII of England used the Court of Stars.They flattered the nobility while depriving them of their political power.

In Portugal and the Scandinavian countries, the situation is almost the same.Kings built their own power by overthrowing the nobility and exploiting the loyal middle class.

Germany and Italy However, during this period, Germany and Italy had not yet achieved national unity, nor did they have a national monarchy; but there were many absolute monarchs in the local area.Many princes, dukes and earls in Germany were very despotic.In Italy, however, there has been a clear tendency to transform a city republic into a hereditary monarchy.

Scotland and Poland Scotland and Poland may be the only countries in Europe that have achieved national unity at this time without falling victim to autocratic regimes.In Scotland, the weak king was held back by the powerful nobles.The Polish nobility retained the electoral system of the king, preventing the throne from becoming hereditary.

Despots and wars In the 15th and 16th centuries, autocratic regimes rose widely in Western and Central Europe, and the nature and purpose of wars changed significantly.Domestic feudal wars in the Middle Ages were often local and short-lived.But the wars between ambitious despots were endless and more serious.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSITION Despotism and all its influences, both good and bad, are a necessary link in the development of history, a logical stage in the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern age.It overthrew the feudal system and ushered in democracy.It was in turn bound up with expanded trade, classical learning, belligerent religion, and national sentiment.

(End of this chapter)