A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 23 The Protestant Revolt
In the 16th century, when Western Europe expanded overseas to the Americas, Asia, and Africa, the Christian churches in Europe were clearly divided.A considerable number of Nordic Christians stood up against the authority of the Pope.They abandoned certain teachings of the Catholic Church and formed new groups.These new groups were called Protestants, and the church schism that led to the rise of Protestantism was called the Reformation, more precisely the Protestant Revolt.

This schism in the church appeared in the sixteenth century, but it was the result of a long period of dissatisfaction with the church since the middle ages, which had often appeared as early as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

[-]. Early church schisms
From very early on, there have been differences of opinion among Christians, such as disagreements over doctrine and church organization, and heresies and schisms have often occurred.

The earliest heresies, like the Arians, died out in the end, though they flourished for a while.Only in Armenia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Abyssinia were separate churches of different beliefs emerged.

Even more serious was the split between Eastern and Western Christianity in the 11th century. Greek Christians and Latin Christians were divided into two groups, namely the Eastern "Orthodox" Church and the Western "Catholic" Church.Both churches claim to be Orthodox.Eastern Orthodox Christians reject the authority of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope.Western Christians generally recognize his authority.

[-]. Reasons for the new split

Political antagonism In Western Europe, there was criticism of the Church and political and religious resistance to Church authority. Kings and civil officials resented and suppressed the political power and influence of the Church.I have already described how the Holy Roman Emperor rebelled against the Pope in the Middle Ages, and how the kings of England, France, and Spain obtained the power to tax church property, appoint priests, limit the power of church courts, and violate papal decrees. .In the 14th and 15th centuries, conflicts between popes and kings were nothing new, but political conflicts alone were not enough to cause a split in the church.

Religious confrontation Another kind of resistance stems from different views on religious teachings.For example, in the 12th century, the Albigensians in southern France attacked the church's communion and priesthood, and were suppressed by the Crusaders in the 13th century. In the 14th century, John Wycliffe (1320-1384), a British priest who was also a professor at Oxford University, put forward a firm view and expressed his opposition to many Catholic teachings and practices.He claims that the pope is not an earthly representative of Christ but an "antichrist"; monasticism is not a real part of Christianity; sacraments administered by wicked priests are void; The teaching in the Bible; the church should be attached to the state.

Although the Lollards and Hussites were reprimanded by the Pope, Wycliffe gained many followers, including British gentry, politicians, and poor people.After his death his writings were endorsed by Johan Hus, a priest and professor at the University of Prague, and were widely distributed in Bohemia. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the English disciples of Wycliffe, the Lollards, and the Czech Hussites were increasing in number.

Just as kings and princes had actively joined forces with the ecclesiastical authorities to suppress the Albigensians, so they now sought to suppress the Lollards and Hussites.Henry IV and Henry V of England used fines, imprisonment, and the stake to curb the spread of the Lollard movement in the country.Eager to stamp out religious movements in the Czech Republic, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund induced Johann Huss to attend a plenary synod in Konstanz, Switzerland.At the meeting, he ignored his solemn promise to protect the personal safety of Huss, and implemented the meeting decree, and executed Huss at the stake in 1415.

Hussite Wars The burning of Hussites soon sparked popular riots in the Czech Republic, half religious, half patriotic.The German Catholics declared war on the Czech Hussites, and the Hussites immediately split into several factions that fought each other.The Hussite wars lasted for several years, and then the Pope made some national concessions, and the Catholic Church was restored in most areas.But a branch of the Hussites, the Moravian Brothers, has survived to this day.

Moral confrontation In the 14th and 15th centuries, the third kind of resistance to the Catholic Church was the criticism of the priest's extraordinary practices and the "corruption" of the church.It is said that some priests live shamelessly, immorally, plundering the people, and living extravagantly.It is believed that many bishops strive to have ample secular wealth, that the Vatican squeezed vast sums out of the pockets of "good Christians" in Germany, England, and France, and left "bad Christians" in Italy to squander and enjoy worldly pleasures.Erasmus enumerates some of the people's complaints with clarity and humor in his "Ode to Fools".He believes that Christians no longer have the great spiritual power of the early Christianity. Therefore, in order to reform the church, ordinary people must receive a good education so that they can effectively supervise monks and theologians and help to eliminate the evil spirits in the church. Shameless evil.

Propositions for reform Serious abuses in the church gave rise to widespread claims for reform.Proposals for reform will gain people's attention, and shortcomings will be corrected.Not only ordinary believers, but even popes, cardinals, bishops, priests, and monks all look forward to reform and sincerely strive for it.The spiritual mission of the Church has not been completely ignored.In the 15th century, The Imitation of Christ, written by the monk Thomas Kempis, was the most famous and widely circulated book on Christian piety after the Bible.The basic principles set forth in the book are highly agreed upon and widely taught.

The development of national sentiment and national patriotism has greatly promoted the idea of ​​liberating the British, German, French and other local churches from the rule of "foreign countries". Union agitation.

The Pope and many Christians expressed staunch opposition to the various tendencies of the sixteenth century to split the Church.They do not want to "nationalize" the Catholic Church, do not approve of the loss of the church's land and income, and do not allow the church to be completely under the control of the autocratic monarch.

Two factions of reformers In the 16th century, Christian reformers were divided into two camps: one faction remained in the Catholic Church, supported its organization and teachings, and at the same time tried its best to remedy the shortcomings; The newly organized "reformed" church.These new organizations, known as "Protestant" churches, protested complaints of church abuses.Protestant revolts destroyed the religious unity that had characterized Central and Western Europe.

[-]. The Protestant Church

German Reformer Martin Luther The first reformer to lead a large mass of people in Western Europe to openly split with the Catholic Church was Martin Luther (1483–1546).A German, he was ordained a monk at the age of twenty, and shortly thereafter was appointed professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg.As a teacher and preacher, he was loved by his students.He is forthright and forthright, unafraid to make his case.At the same time he was deeply concerned with the question of eternal salvation.Slowly he began to wonder if there were certain things people could do to please God.He believed that the only remaining hope of mankind lay in the simple faith in the goodness of God in each individual.

The Lutheran-Church schism The Lutheran-Catholic schism developed gradually.He first came to general attention in Germany in 1517 when he openly questioned the doctrine of offering "indulgences" and the "good deeds" upon which they were based.

An indulgence is a promise of special favors after death.When a person truly grieves over his sin and begins to repent, the indulgence grants remission of all or part of the punishment due after death.In order to obtain indulgences, the penitent had to say some kind of prayer, visit some churches, or do other "good deeds."During the Middle Ages, joining the Crusades or funding the Crusades were considered "good deeds".There is still a way to forgive sins in the Catholic Church today, but donations are no longer advocated, and no one gives money anymore.

Outline and Debate Pope Leo X appointed many full-time staff to sell indulgences in 1517 in order to raise funds for the construction of St. Peter's Church in Rome.Luther was enraged by a commissioner named Tetzel, who posted 95 theses on the door of Wittenberg Church, arguing for debate with all who came.In these 95 theses he attacked indulgences and some of the Pope's claims.Two years later, in a public debate with a prominent scholar, Luther denied the divine authority of all popes and a synod to interpret Christian doctrine.Citing the doctrinal theories of Huss and Wycliffe, he insisted that everyone has the right to organize their lives according to their experience of studying the Bible.

Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther from the Church in 1520 and proposed that Holy Roman Emperor Charles V punish him as a heretic.

Emperor Luther under the ban tended to punish Luther and his believers, but many people in Germany, including princes, nobles, and some priests and monks, expressed sympathy for Luther and allowed him to continue to communicate with the Pope. Confront the emperor.

Luther splits Germany In Germany, Luther distributed pamphlets slamming the Pope and the Catholic Church.He won the support of the devout, who were appalled by Luther's revelations of corruption within the Church.He won the support of patriotic Germans because Luther made them resent the attachment of their country to an Italian pope.He won the support of nobles and princes because Luther showed them that they could grow their wealth and power from the weakening of church and empire.

For a moment, it seemed that all Germans would turn against the Catholic Church.But when groups of peasants in southern Germany rose up against the church and against the rulers of the country, the princes began to panic.The peasant uprising was brutally suppressed in 1525.The peasants then turned against Luther, for he had sided with the nobles in this resistance.At the same time, many aristocrats, especially in the south, turned their backs on Lutheran theories when they saw the peasants being influenced by Luther's program.Of course, the emperor and other princes would not heed Luther's call, either from a religious or political point of view.

The end result was that Germany was divided.The northern states followed Luther and became Protestant.The southern states rejected his program and remained Catholic.

Luther wins Scandinavia Luther loses support in southern Germany but wins in Scandinavia.Because the kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden all made Lutheran the state religion. After the 16th century, not only northern Germany, but also the vast majority of people in Scandinavian countries were Lutherans.

Peace of Augsburg The so-called peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555 after a long civil war between Catholics and Lutherans in Germany.In the treaty, the emperor recognized Lutheranism as the legal sect of Christianity.This peace treaty was beneficial to the German princes, but not necessarily to the people, because the peace treaty stipulated that each prince had the right to choose the religion on behalf of his people.In every state, people must obey the religion of the prince.This was in line with the authoritarian regime of the time.

With the King of England in England, some of Wycliffe's rhetoric has begun to take root.In the 16th century, however, religious antagonism in England was mainly carried out by King Henry VIII.At first Henry opposed Luther and wrote a book against him.After that Henry broke with the Pope and took decisive measures to lead the whole country to oppose the Pope.Henry was distraught and despairing at the Pope's refusal to grant him a marriage he had so much desired; and he was as eager to enhance his royal authority in the church as he had in the state.Therefore, in 1534, he led Parliament to pass a "Supreme Power Act", stipulating that the king replaced the Pope as the head of the Church of England.

The Anglican Church The Church of England gradually became the Anglican Church.Henry VIII only wanted to get rid of the pope and become independent. He didn't want to change the teaching or the form of worship.But during the reign of his son Edward VI (1547-1553) and daughter Elizabeth (1558-1603), the state church carried out various innovations.The Bible was proclaimed the sole guide to the faith; "benevolence" in Catholic doctrine was declared superstitious; the sacraments were changed; the prayer book was translated from Latin into English, and much changed.

Henry's daughter, Queen Mary, was a devout Catholic, and during her five-year reign (1553-1558), England was once again united with Rome.But during Elizabeth's long reign, Protestantism was consolidated again.The Church of England is officially recognized, sometimes called the Anglican Church (also known as the Anglican Church) and supported by the state.From the time of Queen Elizabeth onwards, the majority of Britons are Anglican, although there are still a small number of Catholics.It was not until the 19th century that British Catholics won emancipation and the draconian laws against Catholics were abolished.In Ireland, although the British rulers established a Protestant church, most of the local people still believed in Catholicism.

Religious conversions in Great Britain, as in Ireland, as in most other countries, were followed by massive persecutions and confiscations.Many people died for their faith, and many families and organizations were impoverished.This was especially the case under the reigns of Henry VIII, Mary and Elizabeth.

Swiss Reformer - Ulrich Zwingli In Switzerland, Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) led an uprising against the Catholic Church.He differed from Luther on some points, especially concerning the sacraments and church organization.In Switzerland, like Germany, some small states believe in Protestantism, while others still believe in Catholicism, and they fight each other because of their different beliefs.Zwingli was killed at the Battle of Capel in 1531.

French Reformer - John Calvin The young Frenchman John Calvin (1509–1564) proved to be a more universal influence than Henry VIII and Martin Luther in establishing Protestant doctrine and organization. strong man.Calvin had a falling out with the Catholic Church when he was 20 years old.He was considered a heretic in France, so he left his homeland and took refuge in Switzerland.In Geneva, from 1536 until his death in 1564, he was the city's religious prophet and political dictator.Calvin's teachings spread far and wide from Geneva.There are several reasons for the general acceptance of his teachings.First, Calvinism was more democratic than most other forms of Christianity, and so it was popular with many who loathe despotism.Second, Calvin's "Principles of Christianity", written at the age of 26, expounded the doctrine so clearly and concisely that it was immediately hailed as an excellent work in theology.Since then, the work has had a prominent place in religious literature.

Many Swiss followed Calvin, as did the Dutch and some Magyars.French Protestant Huguenots also became Calvinists.In Scotland, Calvinism, introduced by John Knox, was canonized as the state religion.It is also accepted by many in some parts of the British Isles.Calvinists in Scotland (and some other countries) are called Presbyterians.Puritans and New England migrating Protestants also became Calvinists.

Many branches of Protestantism The main branches of Protestantism that emerged in the 16th century were Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Calvinism, but there were others.In Switzerland and Holland, for example, followers of Mennonite Simmons, known as the Mennonites, emerged; in England, Baptists and Quakers (Friends) soon became known.Mennonites and Quakers were staunchly anti-war.Baptists got their name from the practice of water baptism.Generally speaking, they all follow the teachings of Calvin.

[-]. Reformation of the Catholic Church
While Protestantism was on the rise in European countries, the Catholic Church was undergoing a revolution.Like Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavia, Italy, Austria, France, and Spain all experienced religious riots, but in the end only partial abolitions of maladministration occurred without violent resistance or outright secession.

In the latter half of the 16th century, several upright and far-sighted popes successively appeared at the Trento Conference. They greatly improved church management and raised the moral standards of priests.A plenary religious meeting, the Trento Conference, was held and lasted for 18 years (1545-1563).The Trento Conference made a reasonable and well-placed elaboration of Catholic doctrine, carried out positive changes in financial and educational affairs, revised the church's prayer book, and published a new version of the popular Latin Bible. The Dangers and Heresy of Bare Reading.Betrayal of the faith was punished by ecclesiastical courts, the Inquisition, especially in Spain and Italy, where the Inquisition was in full swing.

Ignatius Loyola One of the main forces of change within the Catholic Church was the new religious order, the Society of Jesus, whose members were often called the Jesuits.The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534.Ignatius was once a Spanish soldier, and when he was recuperating in the hospital, he happened to read the life of Christ and the biographies of some saints.According to him, this reading triggered a great change in his heart, making him determined to change from a soldier of a secular king to a knight of Christ and the church, fighting for more glory of God.

The work of the Jesuits In the 16th century, the Jesuits immediately became active in religious conflicts.First of all, they founded many schools and colleges, and their erudition and cultivation made the Catholic priests again highly respected by people.As preachers, their sermons and admonitions are concise and clear, so they are highly respected by believers.

Jesuits Jesuits have made outstanding achievements in the field of church.Mainly by virtue of their strength, Poland was converted again after being nearly converted to Protestantism.Similarly, in Bavaria and Belgium, they retained Catholicism; in the Czech Republic and Hungary, they protected a large number of Catholics; in England, they often risked their lives to help Catholics; , was compensated by missionary activities in China, India, and among the American Indians and among the barbarians of Brazil and Paraguay.

In the Catholic Church in India, China, and America, Franciscans and Dominicans are also very active, but the Jesuits are the most prominent.

Religious agreements between popes and kings In order to maintain Catholicism in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, and Austria, the pope signed "religious agreements" with the rulers of these countries, stipulating that certain privileges were granted to the rulers in matters of the church.This naturally favored the tendency to have the church attached to the king.It was not until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, after violent political and social revolutions, that the Catholic Church regained most of the freedoms lost by these treaties in the sixteenth century.

V. Intolerance and Religious Wars

Outbreaks of Intolerance One of the immediate and most unfortunate results of the religious division of Europe in the sixteenth century was religious intolerance.This intolerance is manifested in religious persecution and religious wars. The rulers of every Western European country, whether Catholic or Protestant, believe in the traditional view: political unity depends to a large extent on religious unity, so every Every nation should use its power to compel all its citizens, especially Christian citizens, to conform to the only official belief.

The policies of Philip II The kings of Spain, Portugal, and Italy forced people to remain Catholic or face execution or imprisonment by the Inquisition.King Philip II of Spain, the most ardent supporter of the Catholic Church, tried every means to ensure the victory of his faith not only in his own country but elsewhere.He purged Spain of Protestantism, executing thousands of heretics.He allowed only Catholics to migrate to the Spanish colonies of America, and to maintain their faith he turned to the New World Inquisition for help.

In the struggle between French Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants), Philip gave French Catholics military assistance.When the Holy Roman Emperor wanted to overthrow the Lutherans and Calvinists, he sent troops to Germany to support them.He married Mary Tudor, Queen of England, and wanted to use the opportunity to convert England to Catholicism.Later, when Mary's successor Elizabeth ascended the throne and rebuilt Protestantism, Philip sent a large group of invincible warships to attack England (1588), trying to promote his beliefs by force.Thanks to the valor of the British sailors and the fierceness of the storm, the Armada was driven off and defeated.

As the ruler of the Netherlands, Philip had to deal with the resolute resistance of the Calvinist majority of the Dutch, which eventually triggered a terrible war.As a result, in 1648, 50 years after Philip's death, the Netherlands was recognized as an independent country.

Germany's War of Religion. The Holy Roman Emperor and most of the electors still believed in Catholicism, but many princes became Lutherans, and some became Calvinists.Protestant princes murdered Catholic subjects, Catholic princes murdered Protestant subjects, and Protestant princes fought Catholic emperors.This shows that the Augsburg Peace Treaty signed in 1555 was not a wise solution. It was not a wise decision for each prince to have the right to let his subjects believe in the sect he believed in.

Thirty Years' War In 30, another war broke out between Catholics and Protestants in Germany.It lasted 1618 years, so it's called the 30 Years War.This war is not only a religious war, but also a political and economic war.It spread like fire and became an international war, one of the cruelest and most destructive in history.

When the war first started, it was just a revolution of the Calvinist nobility in Bohemia (Czech Republic).The emperor's army defeated the Calvinists, but the war soon spread far and wide.The Lutheran princes of northern Germany, with the help of the Danish king, united against the emperor and the Catholic princes who were loyal to him.Once again the emperor's army was victorious, but the war was resumed by another Lutheran king, Gustav Adolf of Sweden.

Surprisingly, Gustav was provided with weapons and money by a Catholic country, France.Kings were greedy for territory more than religious zeal.After Gustave was killed in the war of 1632, France joined Protestant Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands against the emperor and his ally, the king of Spain.For purely political purposes, France wanted to weaken its enemies, Spain and Austria, in order to strengthen itself.

The French victory at the Westphalian peace eventually forced the emperor to negotiate peace.The terms that ended the war in 1648 are collectively known as the Peace of Westphalia.France received Alsace, but not Strasbourg; Sweden received two German territories; Brandenburg annexed eastern Pomerania and some provinces formerly belonging to the Catholic bishops; Holland and Switzerland received independent.Every German state in the empire can declare war and negotiate peace without the consent of the emperor.In terms of religion, Calvinists received the same status as Lutherans and Catholics, but all church property acquired before 1624 did not need to be returned.

Religious intolerance in Britain The British Isles have also suffered from religious intolerance.Henry VIII fought to create and maintain a divided, centrist Anglican church, burning Lutherans and massacring Catholics.Mary Tudor fought to restore Catholicism, mutilating and burning Anglicans and Calvinists.Elizabeth and her successors who believed in Anglicanism made strict laws against Catholicism and executed many Catholics. At the same time, they gave back to non-Anglican Protestants such as Baptists, Quakers and Presbyterians. The believers of the Church brought a lot of trouble.

In the 17th century, in order to escape the persecution suffered in England, the Puritans came to what is today Plymouth in the United States, and the Catholics went to Maryland.In the middle of the century, Calvinists in England were at the forefront of a bitter civil war that lasted until 1649 and culminated in the execution of King Charles I.But when the Calvinists were in power, they ravaged the Catholics more severely than the Anglicans.

Fire and Sword In Scandinavia, the Lutheran kings of Denmark and Sweden used fire and sword to eradicate Catholicism.The Catholic kings of Poland and Hungary used the same tactics against Protestants.The Calvinist nobles of Scotland rose to arms against Catholic Queen Mary Stuart and deposed her.Mary fled to England, where she was eventually executed by the Anglican Queen Elizabeth of England in 1587.

France and the Edict of Nantes For most of the 16th century, France was plagued by the Wars of Religion.In 1572, thousands of Huguenots were massacred on "St. Bartholomew's" day, and the brutality reached its peak.In 1598, a great and enlightened king, Henry IV, issued the famous Edict of Nantes, which stopped the religious wars in France.The edict granted Huguenots civil rights and religious toleration.In this way, France became the first country to prove that religious differences and national unity can coexist.Nearly a century of peace and prosperity followed; however, in 1685 another great French king, Louis XIV, was less enlightened and tolerant, and abolished the Edict of Nantes.So France was once again tortured by mutilation and displacement.

The Slow Development of Religious Tolerance In the 16th century, the direct impact of the schism of the Christian church was to aggravate religious intolerance and trigger numerous religious wars.Ultimately, however, the schism served to signal a more tolerant attitude among Christians.Gradually, it also proved that tolerance and benevolence are possible.But it takes a long time.

It is not until the modern age, indeed the contemporary age, that the principle of religious toleration has triumphed and the wars of religion have ceased.Nowadays, it is generally recognized that religion is a matter of individual freedom and voluntary, and religious tolerance is regarded as one of the great achievements of human thought and the progress of the world.

[-]. Three major groups of Christians

Long before the Protestant Rebellion in the 16th century, there had been a great schism in Christianity, the split between Orthodoxy in the East and Catholicism in the West. In the 16th century, Western Catholicism was divided into two parts or groups, one still called Catholicism and the other Protestantism.Since then, three forms of Christianity have existed simultaneously—Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodoxy.

After the Protestant Rebellion in Catholic areas, Catholicism was largely limited to Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, the Southern Netherlands (Belgium), Swiss mountain forests, southern Germany, Ireland, Poland, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, most of Hungary, northern Yugoslavia, South America, Central United States, Mexico, most of the West Indies, Quebec and the Philippine Islands.

Protestant areas Protestantism was established in northern and central Germany, Scandinavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, the North Netherlands (Netherlands), most of Switzerland, Scotland, Great Britain, the United States, most of Canada, South Africa, and Australia.

There are many intersections in these areas.For example, there are a small number of Protestants in France, Ireland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic; there are still a small number of Catholics in Germany, the Baltic countries, the Netherlands, the United States, and the British Empire, and the number is still increasing.Generally speaking, however, when Northern Europe became Protestant, Southern and Central Europe remained Catholic.

Orthodox areas Meanwhile, Eastern Europe - Russia, Romania, the Balkans and Greece are still Orthodox areas, although some of them were ruled by Muslim Turks for a long time; other parts of it - Russia, still have some heretical sects developing .

Christianity has something in common Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox countries still have many similarities.They can also be considered as a whole when compared with Islamic and Buddhist cultural areas.All Christians look up to Jesus as their Co-Founder and Spiritual Encourager; all have respect for the Bible and cherish the traditions of early Christianity.In addition, the vast majority of Protestants, like Catholics and Orthodox Christians, retain many theological concepts of the early Christian church, such as believing in the Trinity, the divinity of Jesus, the corruption of human beings, and salvation and rewards in the afterlife due to the crucifixion of Jesus.The character and virtues of Christ are embraced by Protestants, Orthodox Christians and Catholics alike.

Theological differences. Protestants and Orthodox believers have different views on the Pope's power than Catholics. They reject the Pope's authority and jurisdiction.On this point Orthodox Christians and Protestants agree, but on other theological views, they have very big differences.Protestants made major changes in the sacraments, they also denied purgatory, called the saints, and exalted the holy places.They propose that everyone has the right to interpret the Bible and to do the will of Christ without the assistance of the Pope or priests.For Protestants, the Bible and the experience of each Christian's own study is the ultimate authority; for Catholics and Orthodox Christians, a vibrant institution or church is the ultimate authority.

Cultural Contrast Between Protestant and Catholic countries, in addition to doctrinal differences, there are also some obvious social and cultural differences.In Protestant countries, the monastery and its affiliated schools, libraries and charities were closed.In some cases, religious paintings, statues of saints and stained glass windows were destroyed, and church festivals were canceled.The Puritans expressed their disapproval of the theater and drama, and their Sunday solemnity was in stark contrast to the joyous holidays.

Three Facts First, Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox were for a long time in such antagonism that their missionary work stopped each other.The second point is that the scene of Christians competing with each other has gradually made many thoughtful people doubt the entire teaching of Christianity.In modern times, however, the wars of religion have ceased, religious toleration has been recognized and practiced, and true Christian charity may be increasing.The third point, and the interesting fact related to this, is that many things that were previously done by the church are now done by the state.In other words, Christian civilization today is more secular than it was in the Middle Ages.This is partly the result of a division among Christians.

(End of this chapter)