A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 24 The Dutch-British Attack on Absolutism
Feudalism has grown because orderly government has failed; democracy has grown because absolute monarchy has been too successful.

Monarchy was built at the expense of feudalism, at first monarchy was limited (in the middle ages), limited by feudal remnants, frequent elections, various charters and parliaments; By then, the medieval restrictions on monarchy had all but been overturned or forgotten, and despotism had grown very powerful.Then it turns to a rather ancient bondage to monarchy - revolt.In the end a long and bloody struggle ensued, in which some places were freed and others lost for a time.

The Netherlands and the United Kingdom are two famous countries that attacked the autocracy in the early stage and won victories.

[-]. The Dutch Revolt
The inhabitants of the province of Holland and the other provinces of the northern Netherlands are called Dutch. For more than 40 years, they fought against the mighty Spain and finally achieved independence, setting a famous example of heroism to the world.They revolutionized because their king, Emperor Charles V, and especially his son Philip II of Spain, were despotic and brutal.More precisely, there are four reasons for the Dutch revolution.

Reasons for the revolution (1) Financial aspect: heavy taxation. (2) Political aspects: The power of the Netherlands was too concentrated in the hands of the king, especially Philip II; it deprived the cities and nobles of many privileges in the past. (3) Religion: Philip II tried to make all the Dutch believe in Catholicism, so he adopted the Inquisition. (4) Personal aspect: The public hates Philip.Many of the Dutch and some of the Netherlands loved Charles V because he was born and brought up among them, while Philip II was born and bred in Spain; Never been to the Netherlands.

The nature of the struggle has gone to extremes on both sides.In the early days of the revolution, some radical Dutchmen stormed Catholic churches, destroyed altars, destroyed icons, and committed unnecessary atrocities.The atrocity culminated in 1556, when they destroyed Antwerp's magnificent cathedral.On the other hand, the Duke of Alva, appointed by Philip to rule the Netherlands, destroyed almost all enterprises with heavy taxes and executed thousands of people.Around the same time, the Dutch began bringing in soldiers from the sea to help them fight the Catholics and the Spaniards.

The embankment of Leiden was a heroic and tragic event in 1574 during this long battle.It's very telling.The city of Leighton was in famine - all cats and mice were eaten.Spanish soldiers surrounded the city.So the Dutch smashed the dikes and let in the sea.The sea destroyed the very good crops, but it also drove away the Spanish soldiers.With the high tide, the Dutch fleet sailed in and brought food to Leiden, which was in famine.

Spanish atrocities In 1576, the Spanish army in the Netherlands mutinied due to lack of food and pay, and looted Antwerp and some cities.This barbaric act is known in history as the "Spanish Atrocity".

Immediately following the "Spanish Atrocities," representatives of all seventeen provinces of the South and the North assembled and promised to stand together in the uprising until the King abolished the Inquisition and restored their former liberties.But three years later (17), the southern provinces decided to make peace with the king.

There are many reasons for the peace between the southern provinces and Spain: (1) Most of the southerners are Walloons-speaking French, while the northerners speak Dutch; (2) Most of the southerners are Catholics, while the Dutch are Protestant (Calvinist); (3) Philip agreed that if the southern provinces recognized him as ruler, he would grant them autonomy in nearly all matters.

But the northern revolution continued.In 1581, an alliance of seven northern provinces was formed in The Hague, and the Act of Oath was drafted.This is the real Dutch Declaration of Independence.

William the Reticent At the heart of the Dutch Revolution was William, Prince of Orange.He wisely never divulged all of his plans and became known as "William the Reticent".Because of his fortitude like a soldier and the skills of a statesman, he was also called "Washington of the Netherlands".He seemed to be defeated many times, but after each failure, he took another step towards success.He fought not only with the sword but with the pen—his book, Apology, is one of the most powerful defenses against tyranny ever written.William was killed by a hired assassin in 1584, but his son Maurice succeeded him along with some Dutch leaders.

"Invincible Fleet" In 1588, one of the reasons why Philip of Spain sent a powerful "Invincible Fleet" to attack England was because Queen Elizabeth had helped the Dutch.The defeat of the fleet saved not only England but Holland; for after that Spain's sea power was no longer as strong as it had been.

The invincible Dutch were at war, the Dutch fleet and commerce developed—the Netherlands became rich.Dutch ships were plundering Portuguese colonies in the East Indies at a time when Spanish soldiers were destroying Dutch cities and flooding the land through gaps in dikes.The Dutch Republic, jointly formed by the seven northern provinces, established a huge colonial empire.The number of Dutch ships engaged in maritime transshipment trade between Europe and Asia was the largest.

Truce and peace In 1609, the armistice agreement was signed, but Spain never stopped trying to conquer the Netherlands. It was not until the end of the 1648-year war in 30 that the famous Treaty of Westphalia was signed, and the independence of the Dutch Republic was officially recognized.Belgium in the southern provinces of the Netherlands remained subject to Spain until 1713 when it fell to Austria.

The results of the Dutch Revolution achieved freedom, did not immediately give the Netherlands democracy, or even full religious tolerance, but their revolution was the first attack on the divine right of kings.They established a federal republic, and the bourgeoisie was very influential in the country.Their president is called the "ruler" and the parliament is called the "triad".During the 18th century, the position of ruler became hereditary and, in effect, the Netherlands became a constitutional monarchy.

[-]. The Puritan Revolt

The Tudors and the Stuarts The Tudor kings who ruled England from 1485 to 1603 were not only powerful but also wise - they controlled parliament, manipulated the church, managed business, all at will, and they were very smart, Don't talk about these.They leave the form of laws, but in reality they rule.They belong to despots, to successful despots.The Stuarts, the successors to the throne, demanded more than the Tudors, but exercised very little power.The Stuart kings wanted to be despots in deed as well as in speech, but they were not wise—they ruined themselves by their words.Of course, there are other reasons for failure besides their unwise remarks.

Reasons for the failure of the Stuart dynasty (1) Although the Stuart family is blood relatives of the Tudor family, they are Scots, so they are considered foreigners.The first Stuart king of England was James I, who was once king of Scotland.He was also the son of Mary Queen of Scots, who was executed by Queen Elizabeth in 1587.Under James I, Scotland was united with the royal houses of England and continues to this day, but many English people are prejudiced against the Stuarts because of their Scottish origin.

(2) James I, who reigned from 1603 to 1625, and Charles I, who reigned from 1625 to 1649, both wanted to be absolute monarchs, so they talked about the theory of divine right to king.While many agreed with these claims, others were shocked and opposed them.

(3) There are also religious reasons why the English hate the Stuart family.Both James I and Charles I were fanatical Anglicans.Most Scots are Presbyterians, Anglicanism is not prevalent.In England, Anglicanism was not popular with all.Some Englishmen are Catholics.But it was the Puritans who caused the Stuart kings the greatest trouble.

The Puritans were originally members of the Anglican Church, some of them have remained in the Anglican Church, and some have broken away.They are all willing to implement innovations in the church.All the Puritans were hostile to James I and Charles I, because they wanted to be both kings and churches, and they wanted everyone to submit to the power and belief of the royal family.

(4) Economic dissatisfaction also caused rebellion against the Stuart kings.James I and Charles I imposed new taxes without the consent of Parliament, especially on merchants, shipowners, and some middle-class citizens.Many of them were Puritans and therefore hated the king.

(5) The fall of the Stuart dynasty was mainly due to political reasons.James I and Charles I acted arbitrarily without the consent of the parliament for a long time. Even if the parliament was held from time to time, they still insisted on doing things according to their own will despite the opposition of the parliament.The majority of the members of the House of Commons are still Puritans, and they will certainly not be tamed.

The petition of rights was contested for four years, and in 1628 Parliament urged the king to sign a document enumerating the rights of Parliament.That's the Petition of Rights, and it's not just a second Magna Carta.So Charles decided not to hold a parliament and deal with state affairs independently.He ruled autocratically for 11 years regardless of parliament.The British obeyed on the surface, but they objected in their hearts.But the Scots Presbyterians bravely took up arms.In a panic, Charles held a parliament in 1640.

The long-closed Parliament at last convened, and the people met in exasperation, especially among the Puritans.They made up their minds that even if the king ordered them to disband, they did not intend to go home, and they wanted to take the whole situation into their own hands.Year after year, this parliament is extremely long, because some issues need to be discussed continuously.Because this parliament lasted for such a long time, it was called the "long-term parliament".It dragged on for almost 20 full years (1640-1660).A war broke out, the king was killed, and England fell under the iron fist of a dictator.

Civil War From 1642 to 1649, civil war and revolution broke out in England.The King and his party, known as the "Knights," prevailed at first; named after the hairstyle.In the end, only King Charles' most staunch enemies remained in Parliament. In 1649 they had the king executed and claimed no more kings: they declared England a republic, or republic.

A military dictator Revolution usually ends with a military dictatorship.The same was true of the results of this Puritan revolt.Oliver Cromwell, the captain of the victorious army, took power.He quotes the Bible when he speaks, and what he says is the law.Perhaps he believed that he, like the Stuart kings before him, had fully possessed the "divine right to kingship".From 1653 to 1658, Cromwell held the title of "Lord of the Protector".Since then, there has been a strong government in Britain.When the Scots and Irish revolted, Cromwell brutally suppressed them.His personal dictatorship succeeded because he was both an able statesman and a brilliant military strategist, commanding an irresistible army.

The Collapse of the Republic After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, his son Richard became the "Defender of the Country".Richard was a good-natured youth of thirty-two, but lacked his father's ambition and talents.He was incapable of controlling the outrageous generals, the republicans who wanted to do new political experiments, the royalists who wanted to restore the Stuart dynasty, and the believers who wanted to put the Presbyterian doctrine as the supremacy.Richard Cromwell, well aware of his incompetence, wisely abdicated himself.

[-]. The Restoration of the British Dynasty
Restoration of the monarchy Britain fell prey to military dictators for a time.But a general ordered the election of a new parliament, and this new parliament was preparing to restore the monarchy.They invited Charles Stuart, the son of the unfortunate Charles I, to return to England as king.At that time, Charles was 30 years old and had been in exile for a long time. He was very happy to return and was named Charles II in 1660.

The restoration of the Stuart monarchy seemed to have undone the gains of the Puritan Revolution.The Republic and the Patriotism came to an abrupt end.The British welcomed the return of Charles II with fireworks and bells, returning to the old life again.Anglicanism was made the state religion, and those who did not believe in it were persecuted.

All Protestant sects who rebel against the Anglican Church are Nonconformists.The Anglican Church belongs to the national church of the United Kingdom. It is a church established according to law and maintained by taxes. People who do not believe in the Anglican Church include Baptists, Presbyterians, Quakers and most Puritans.

Charles II and James II The Stuart King Charles II (1660-1685) and his younger brother James II (1685-1688) of the restoration dynasty, like his father Charles I and his grandfather James I, wanted to be autocratic .Both men believed they ruled Britain by a "divine right" and that they were above Parliament.But unlike the early Stuart kings, the Stuart kings of the restoration dynasty not only hated Calvinism but also Anglicanism, but they supported the Catholic Church.They dreamed of using tyranny to make Britain Catholic again.

The growing fantasy Charles II is wise, slack, and smooth.He did not praise his autocratic politics, and he did not declare his Catholicism until his deathbed.James II was too serious, but not tactful enough.He publicly claimed to be a Catholic, and publicly declared that he had the right to "pardon" all subjects who violated the laws of Parliament.His approach immediately angered most of the British.The Nonconformists were annoyed by his disregard for Parliament and his favoritism of Catholics.Anglicans feared that the status of the state religion would be threatened by a Catholic despot.Indeed, the combination of Catholic faith and despotic politics made James II's situation more difficult than that of all previous English kings.

The disillusioned dream James II's direct successors are the two Protestant daughters Mary and Anne. The British temporarily tolerate his rule, hoping that the situation will improve under the successor's rule.But James II's second wife, a Catholic, gave birth to a son in 1688, and the situation changed completely.All British Protestants knew that the son would succeed the daughter to the throne under the law of royal succession.He would be a Catholic, and nine times out of ten he would follow his father's idea of ​​a "divine right of kings."Soon, the Anglican believers united with those who did not believe in the Anglican Church, imploring James' daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange (the ruler of the Netherlands) to come to England to inherit the throne.So William and Mary landed in England with an army, and entered London unopposed.

[-]. "Glorious Revolution"

The Runaway King King James fled without resistance because his soldiers had deserted him.This is a bloodless revolution.Only in Scotland and Ireland was a real battle fought, and James II's supporters were soon defeated. In 1689, a parliament called without the king's consent deposed James II and recognized the union of William and Mary.

Victorious Parliament The "peaceful" revolution of 1688–1689, often described by British historians as the "Glorious Revolution", marked the ultimate defeat of absolutism in England and the victory of Parliament.Since then, Britain has truly become a constitutional monarchy country, adopting various methods to reduce the possibility of future kings and queens implementing the absolute "divine right of kings" theory of the Stuart dynasty.

Bill of Rights Parliament in 1689, in order to guarantee victory, passed an important act called the Bill of Rights.It openly declares that the sovereign of Britain must be Anglican; and that no future king or queen will have the power, as James II and Charles II, to suspend the law, or make his subjects break it with impunity.The king cannot raise taxes or own an army without the permission of Parliament.Members of Parliament cannot be brutally imprisoned for personal political actions, or denied the freedom to express their opinions.Prisoners must be tried by impartial juries.

In fact, the Bill of Rights is a constitution that limits the power of the Crown and preserves the rights of Parliament.It is consistent with the Magna Carta (1215) and the Petition of Rights of 1628.

Other Important Laws Several other important laws can be seen as indirect results of the English Revolution of 1688.The Acts of Toleration (1689) gave Protestants the right to freedom of worship for everyone who did not adhere to the Church of England, but excluded Catholics.The Act of Succession to the Throne (1701) stipulated that since William and Mary had no children, after William's death, the throne should be inherited by Anne, the youngest Protestant daughter of James II. If Anne died without an heir, the throne should go to her cousins , a German Protestant prince, George of Hanover.Eventually, the Act of Union (1707) formed Scotland and England into a truly unified kingdom (Great Britain) with only one monarch and one parliament.We recall that the Scottish and English thrones were united in 1603 at the time of James I.

Political parties During the reign of Charles II, Britain had two political parties: the Whigs and the Tories.The Whig Party generally consisted of the groups that had championed the cause of the Roundheads in the Puritan Revolt, that is, the nonconformist middle class led by a few Puritan nobles.The Tory Party represents the Cavaliers, mainly including squires, nobles and people who believe in Anglicanism and hold conservative political opinions.

With the victory of Parliament in the "Glorious Revolution" in 1688, the importance of the Whig Party and the Tory Party became more prominent, and they began to take turns to win elections, and then manipulated Parliament and led the government.Such a "two-party system" has become a practice in British politics.

The rise of the cabinet Another feature of British politics later, the "cabinet system", can be seen as an indirect product of the British Revolution in the 17th century.The Stuart kings had the habit of selecting a small number of politicians (usually nobles) as advisors and assistants.Members of this group are responsible for managing the work of several departments of the government, such as one person in charge of finances and another in command of the military.They also meet with the king to discuss public matters.In Charles II's time, this small advisory body was called the "Cabal", and later the "Council of Ministers" or "Cabinet", because they met in a small back room.

The development of the cabinet Prior to 1688, the cabinet consisted of the king's personal favourites.But after the Puritan Rebellion, the cabinet changed from a private meeting of the king to an executive committee of parliament.Slowly it became a practice to choose the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons to serve as a Cabinet member.

For example, King William (1689-1702) appointed Whigs to form a cabinet when the Whigs controlled the House of Commons; and when the Tories won a majority in the House of Commons, the Tories replaced them.Queen Anne (1702-1714), although she preferred the Tories, for most of her reign thought it wiser to appoint Whigs to form her cabinet.In the reign of George I (1714-1727), the cabinet system was developed a step further.Since George was German and could not speak English, he ordered the cabinet to conduct affairs of state according to his own will, so that he did not even have to attend cabinet meetings.In this way, the power and importance of the cabinet eventually increased rapidly.

The modern cabinet is like this, and the British cabinet has two basic features: first, state affairs are guided by the cabinet; second, almost all cabinet ministers are members of the House of Commons.A third feature was developed during the eighteenth century, with a "prime minister" directing the cabinet.The first person to be recognized as 'Prime Minister' (equivalent to the position of Chairman of the Cabinet) was Sir Robert Walpole, a great Whig politician who presided over George I and George II from 18 to 1721 cabinet.

(End of this chapter)