A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century
Chapter 25 The Prevalence of Despotism on the Mainland
Chapter 25 The Prevalence of Despotism on the Mainland
[-]. The French Bourbon Dynasty
The despotisms of France and England grew up almost at the same time, but lasted longer than the despotism of England.Indeed, while the English absolutism in the seventeenth century was struck by the Puritan uprising and overthrown by the Glorious Revolution, the French absolutism was reaching its peak under Louis XIV.
The strong rule of the Bourbons There are several reasons why the French took longer to accept despotism than the British. (1) Compared with the Stuart family in England, the king and ministers of the Bourbon family who ruled France in the 17th century were much more capable than those in England.Henry IV, who issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, was a strong and popular leader who did a lot to heal the wounds of the Wars of Religion and promote the country's prosperity.His son Louis XIII (1610-1643), though weak, had the able helper of Cardinal Richelieu.Louis XIV (1643-1715) came to the throne as a child, but in his childhood and youth there was also a great prime minister, Cardinal Mazarin, who continued to carry out Richelieu's policy ably.
(2) In France, possible resistance to the despotism was curbed.The three-level meeting, which is equivalent to the British Parliament, has been ignored for 1614 years since 175 and was not allowed to take place.The defensive fortresses of the nobles were destroyed, and they could not oppose the king.Religious opponents (Huguenots) gained religious toleration and civil rights from 1598 to 1685.In England the middle classes are against the king, but in France they are for the king.
Upon his coming of age in 1661, the "Grand Monarch" Louis XIV took the French government into his own hands.He was a capable and popular despot who ruled for 54 years.Louis XIV has a dignified appearance, well-dressed clothes, and gentle behavior and speech, and has become a shining example of the "divine right of the king" monarchy.He is very fond of being called "The Great Monarch", which is exactly what he is.The nobles of France flocked to his splendid court.Foreign kings tried their best to imitate him, but without success.What else could the French people do but praise him and be proud of his power?
Arts and Letters under Louis XIV. Men of letters and artists of all kinds looked forward to basking in the king's sunshine, hoping to receive salaries and praise from his profligate patron.This is the "classical age" and "golden age" of French literature and art.Apart from war and diplomacy, on a cultural level, Louis' court belonged to the center of the world and was the envy and envy of the whole of Europe.
But Louis XIV did not live purely for pleasure and praise.He said, "A man shall rule by his work, and for his work." He worked hard, and he demanded hard work from his able ministers, whom he had handpicked.
Finance Director Colbert Louis XIV was quite lucky in choosing advisers and helpers, especially in appointing Colbert as Finance Director.Unlike most statesmen of the time, Colbert was neither aristocrat nor priest.He was the son of a merchant, and a shrewd merchant himself.
Colbert revolutionized French finance.He adopted the method of dismissing corrupt officials to increase the king's income, and at the same time he also reduced the direct tax on land collection to reduce the burden on farmers.
Colbert promoted industry, aided commerce, rewarded inventors, subsidized businessmen who started new businesses, hired skilled artisans from foreign countries, and prohibited artisans from his own country from leaving France.Canceled 17 holidays to allow more time for work.
Trade and Colonies Colbert firmly believed that in order to enrich France, more goods must be sold abroad than bought.So he tried to encourage exports and discourage imports.For example, he "subsidized" the French who built ships at home, while taxing ships bought from abroad.He granted charters and even large sums of money to colonial companies for the creation of French colonies in India, as well as in Africa and America.
To promote domestic trade, Colbert developed canals, built roads, and attempted to abolish transit and excise duties on interprovincial transport of goods.He formed a huge French navy and turned France into a maritime power.He also founded various academies to encourage science, architecture and music.Although he holds many public offices, he also manages his private business in an orderly manner.He served for nearly 20 years, and when he died in 1683, he left a large personal fortune.
The shortcomings of the autocratic regime of Louis XIV Although there are Louis XIV's prominent court and Colbert's outstanding achievements, it is still difficult for the French autocratic regime to remain unchanged for a long time.It relies too much on the will of the king.If the despot has always been able, wise, and kind, his paternalism will weaken his subjects, who will lose their drive and sense of responsibility.Even if despots have great talents, it is difficult to guarantee that they will always be wise and kind.Louis XIV did some unwise things, which many people think are unjust and evil.
One of the stupid things about the abolition of the Edict of Nantes was that not long after Colbert's death, he deprived many subjects of their right to worship freedom with the stroke of a pen.Huguenots were a small but very important minority among the French populace. The Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV in 1598 had given them cherished rights.This edict once allowed France to maintain religious peace for nearly a century, but it was flagrantly broken by Louis XIV in 1685.
Because of the repeal of the Edict, the ill-advised despotism deprived France of its leadership in the cause of religious toleration, while undermining much of the work that Colbert had done for the French economy. More than 30 Huguenots soon found that their freedom and privileges were deprived, and they fled to England, Holland and Prussia to settle down, and some went to the British colonies in America.The Huguenots who remained in Europe joined forces in other countries against Louis XIV.
Since the Huguenots were mostly middle-class, merchants, and skilled artisans, their emigration was a severe blow to French prosperity.
Another stupid thing Louis XIV did in the war of aggression was that he wasted money and sacrificed people's lives in the war of aggression.For most of his reign, he waged wars every year.He had a standing army of 30 to 40 men, more than any other country's army.His minister of war, Loire, was a gifted organizer; his chief engineer, Vauban, a genius in building and sieging fortresses;He gained great fame, caused countless troubles to his rivals, and left France impoverished and exhausted.
Some of Louis XIV's wars are enumerated in the ensuing brief account of his foreign policy.
Louis XIV's Foreign Policy His foreign policy had three main aims:
(1) To secure the natural frontiers of France.He wanted to expand the territory of France so that France could have as vast a territory as the Gauls in the ancient Roman Empire. Like the Gauls, France expanded to the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and the Rhine. Rivers are these "natural" frontiers.
(2) Expand the influence and power of the Bourbon dynasty.As the head of the Bourbon dynasty, Louis XIV wanted to gain wealth, position and even the throne for his family members and for his descendants.He does not hesitate to use the country to achieve the family's goals in diplomacy and war.
(3) Weakening the main competitor in Europe, the Habsburg dynasty.Centuries earlier, the Habsburg family had emerged as rulers (arch dukes) of Austria and later called Holy Roman Emperors. In 1643, when Louis XIV became king, a branch of the Habsburg family ruled Spain, part of Italy, the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium), Frans Comte (present-day eastern France), and western America. Is a colony.There was also a Habsburg ruler who belonged to the close relatives of the king of Spain, Archduke of Austria, King of Hungary, King of Bohemia (Czech Republic), and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.It can be said that the Habsburgs surrounded France.Louis hated his powerful neighbors and was especially jealous of the Habsburgs.He made foreign policy against them.
Louis XIV's Wars (1) Thirty Years' War.By the time of Louis XIV's accession, France had already participated in the Thirty Years' War (30-30) at the cunning Richelieu, on the side of the German Protestants - Sweden and Holland, with Austria and the Habsburgs of Spain. Dynasty confrontation.According to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1618, France received most of Alsace west of the Rhine; according to the Peace Treaty of 1648, France received some places in the north and south, so that the French border along the Belgian The Rynees extends to Belgium.According to the treaty of 1648, only 1659-year-old Louis XIV married the eldest daughter of the King of Spain of the Habsburg family.
(2) The war for the Spanish Netherlands. In 1665, the king of the Spanish Habsburg family died, and Louis XIV proposed that he inherit the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium).Thus triggered the war of 1667-1668, in which the French army continued to win until Britain, the Netherlands, and Sweden came to the aid of Spain.Despite this, Spain ceded southern Belgium, including the city of Lille, to France.
(3) The battle against the Netherlands.Louis invaded the Netherlands in 1672, annoyed that the Netherlands had helped defend Belgium against him, and at the same time gained Dutch territory in order to extend the French border to the Rhine.In addition, the Netherlands was a fierce competitor of France in terms of commerce.In this war, both Habsburgs helped the Netherlands.After 6 years of war, a peace treaty was signed, stipulating that the Netherlands retained its own territory and independence, but the Habsburg family of Spain ceded Frans Comte to France.
(4) Strasbourg and Luxembourg.Louis proposed the occupation of Strasbourg (a free city of the Holy Roman Empire in Alsace) in 1681, and sent troops to occupy the city.Likewise, in 1684 he captured Luxembourg and some other German towns.
(5) Palatinate Wars.In 1688, Louis attacked the Rhine-rich Palatine in order to gain valuable territory and weaken the Habsburg dynasty.The Habsburg dynasty received help from Sweden and other countries. In 1689, Britain and the Netherlands also joined the war against Louis.After nine years of war, he was forced to abandon his plans and return most of the towns he had occupied from 9 onwards, except Strasbourg.
(6) The War of the Spanish Succession.In 1701, Louis felt he had an opportunity to degrade the Habsburgs, elevate the Bourbons, and extend the French frontier to the Rhine.At that time, the last Habsburg king of Spain died, and his will was to give Spain to a grandson of Louis XIV!Louis was quite happy, shouting "No more Pyrenees!" He meant the annexation of Spain to France.But the Habsburgs of Austria desperately refused.What followed was a bitter war that lasted 12 years.Although Louis had the armies of France and Spain, almost all the countries of Europe rebelled against him.They don't want Louis to become stronger than he is now.
The peace treaty signed in 1713 stipulated that Louis could allow his grandson to inherit the Spanish throne, but he must strictly abide by the condition that France and Spain could never be merged.Louis did not reap the benefits for France.In fact he ceded some French colonies in America to England.
The impact of Louis XIV's many wars The "Grand Monarch" won only partial victories in many wars.He did weaken the Habsburg dynasty by making his grandson succeed to the Spanish throne.He enlarged France by annexing Alsace, Artois, a part of Flanders, and Franscomde.By conquering German Alsace, he sowed the seeds of Franco-German hatred for generations.He spent French power on small victories in European conquests at the expense of opportunities for colonies and commerce.Unnecessary wars and a flamboyant court squandered money and burdened the French people with heavy debts and taxes.Famine and plague have always been accompanied by war.His tyrannical rule produced a reign of terror.
The Death of Louis XIV It was too late when Louis XIV realized his blunder.Before he died, the aging autocratic king said to his successor: "Don't imitate my interest in construction and war, but work hard to reduce the suffering of the people." In 1715, he died and reigned for 72 years , the longest-serving king in history.But his glory faded long before he died.He made his people suffer so badly that, as his body passed through the streets, the rowdy crowd celebrated his death with cursing as a salute and booze.
The decline of the French autocracy Louis XV (1715-1774), the successor of Louis XIV, was lazy and extravagant by nature, even though he had capable ministers, it didn't help.France has been consumed by a lazy court and frequent wars.Although the honor of the Bourbons was still the main object of pursuit, the despotism of France was already corrupt in the 18th century.Until the successors of Louis XV, the Bourbon dynasty came to a tragic end in a great revolution.
The Hohenzollern dynasty in Prussia
Rise of Prussia Prussia and Russia were both young European nations that became powerful during the 18th century.Prussia was originally a state of Germany. During the Middle Ages, it was colonized and Germanized by the Teutonic Knights, and then became a principality.In 1618, the throne was succeeded by a prince of the Hohenzollern family, who also ruled the German state of Brandenburg.In this way, Brandenburg and Prussia were united under the rule of the Hohenzollern dynasty, and the Hohenzollern dynasty became stronger.
Great Elector From 1640 to 1688, the ruler of Hohenzollern, Friedrich Wilhelm, weakened the Habsburg dynasty, expanded its territory, and created his own army.He is one of the seven electors and has the power to determine the emperor's candidate.Due to his powerful influence, he earned the title of "Great Elector".
Like the Stuarts in England and the Bourbons in France, the Electors also became firm believers in an absolute monarchy.During his reign, he was a constitutional government, and the Parliament (also known as the Diet) had a say in making laws.But he denied the current system. After his death, he left a monarchy worthy of the name "divine right of the king" to his successors.
Creation of the Kingdom In the early 18th century, the Elector's son and successor, Friedrich I, Marquis of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, was granted the title of King of Prussia by the Habsburg Emperor (1701).So the "Kingdom of Prussia" refers to all the lands ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty, and the name "Brandenburg" has since been abandoned.
King Friedrich William I King Friedrich William I, who reigned from 1713 to 1740, was the son of Friedrich I and grandson of the Elector Friedrich William.He was a tactful and passionate despot who tried to force all his subjects to work and was proud of his army.He turned Prussia into a real military state.Prussia, ruled by Friedrich William I, was the twelfth largest country in Europe in size and population, but fourth in military power. A standing army of 12 men drained five-sevenths of the country's revenue.In addition, he introduced compulsory education in Prussia, mainly for military purposes.He was a firm believer that the more prosperous a country was, the better able it was to maintain a larger army.
The army of King Friedrich William I mainly played the role of deterring neighboring countries and defending the territory, and rarely launched aggressive wars.Through diplomacy and war, he obtained some territories south of the Swedish Baltic Sea.It was not until his son and successor, Friedrich II, that he took full advantage of the Prussian army and autocracy.History refers to Friedrich II as Friedrich the Great.
Friedrich the Great, King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, was the greatest king of the Hohenzollern dynasty.Although he is short in stature, he has bright blue eyes and a long and narrow nose.In his youth, Friedrich the Great was considered to be very unlike a king, because he liked poetry, music and dance, although he had received strict training from his strict father.Yet throughout his reign he was "a perfect king."He pursued prestige and honor through war and conquest, and also showed a strong desire to be an absolute king.
Friedrich's conquest Friedrich the Great used his powerful and capable army and the ample treasury left by his father to seize the throne from the young Habsburg heiress Maria Theresa immediately after inheriting the throne. Obtained the prosperous, rich and populous province of Silesia in Germany.In order to be able to keep Silesia, Friedrich had to fight two long-term wars, namely the Austrian Succession War (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).Many great powers helped Austria against him, but Friedrich was a military prodigy who won many victories against the odds.Prussia eventually kept Silesia.
Several World Wars The wars mentioned above are actually world wars.In North America, it was primarily a rivalry between Britain and France, known in American history as King George's War and the War on the French and Indians.
The first partition of Poland Later, Friedrich William joined Catherine II of Russia and Maria Theresa of Austria to partition Poland.In 1772, they each invaded a part of Poland.Friedrich expanded Prussia's territory and also ensured Prussia's status as a great power on par with Austria, Russia, France, and Great Britain.
"Enlightened autocratic monarch" Friedrich In the second half of the 18th century, almost all the monarchs in continental Europe were autocratic and brutal, but there were also "enlightened autocratic monarchs" who were shrewd and able to seek welfare for their subjects.Frederick the Great was one of them.He not only loves philosophy and literature, but also regards himself as "the first public servant of the country".He wrote: "The people do not exist for the ruler, but the ruler exists for the people." He worked hard, getting up before 6 o'clock every morning, and devoted himself to his official duties.
他为了人民的福利做了很多事：（1）让很多干练忠诚的人担任公职：（2）为普鲁士的经济福利，特别是农业，做了许多事；（3）编纂了一部最新法典；（4）准许宗教自由；（5）推进了教育与科学。
The Romanov Dynasty in Russia
While the powers of Spain, Holland, Sweden, and Poland were waning, Prussia and Russia were rising.While Louis XIV of France was showing off to the world, and the Elector and his son had laid a solid foundation for Prussia, a young man named Peter of the Romanov dynasty was building a powerful Russia in the north.He was Tsar Peter I of Russia who reigned from 1682 to 1725.He has a long tenure and considerable political achievements, so he is called Peter the Great in history.
Peter the Great In 1682, Peter became the Tsar, the same year William Penn planned to establish Philadelphia, and Robert Lasalle came to the mouth of the Mississippi River.Peter the Great found that Russia had a vast territory, but it was poor and backward, with few inhabitants and very little contact with Western Europe.Because it has no exports in the Baltic Sea or the Black Sea, it has little foreign trade.The Russian people are more Asian than European.
To a large extent, Peter seemed to belong to the barbarian family: manic, murderous, very vulgar in dress and behavior, and especially fond of drinking.But he had brains, firm will, sensitive curiosity, and relentless energy.As a young man he was fond of shipbuilding and traveled in Holland, England and some Western European countries in order to learn shipbuilding and other things.Traveling made him gradually believe in the need to "Europeanize" Russia.During his reign, he devoted himself to introducing Western European folk customs into Russia, and made himself and his successor an absolute monarch.He achieved both of these goals.
Establishing an Absolute Government Peter seized every opportunity to increase his authority and make himself an absolute despot.He solemnly declared: "The Czar is sovereign and despotistic; he is accountable to no one in the world." No Stuart or Bourbon king made such a claim.No one was more ruthless in his means to achieve his demands.
Army The Russian Tsar's feudal army was unreliable, and even the guards were not absolutely loyal to the Tsar.Once, when Peter was traveling, he received word that the guards were disobeying his orders and planning to depose him.In a rage, he immediately returned to Moscow to punish the guards.Some were flogged, 2000 were hanged or shredded, and 5000 were beheaded.He replaced the old feudal army with a new army of 20 men, which obeyed him absolutely.With such a loyal army, Peter's wish can be carried out.
Another obstacle to the ecclesiastical dictatorship was the Russian Orthodox Church.About a century ago, the Russian Orthodox Church became independent from the Grand Patriarch of Constantinople and had its own Grand Patriarch in Moscow.The influence of the Russian Church on the people was so great that Peter no longer wanted to let it have its way.He abolished the office of Grand Priest and brought the church under the jurisdiction of councils.This committee is actually under the "Holy Synod" controlled by him.In the end the Russian Church became a loyal supporter of the Tsar.
Government Of course, Peter not only introduced tyranny in the army and the church, but he also practiced tyranny in the government.He abolished the Duma, a medieval-style parliament, and created a small senate, which he appointed, to replace it.He also installed a secret police to monitor plots against him and his agents.He also brought magistrates throughout the country completely under his control.
Europeanizing Russia Peter was determined to make his subjects look more European than Asian.For example, he gathered the main people of Russia together and personally cut off their long beards and bushy mustaches; anyone who insisted on growing beards was severely punished.Next, he ordered the abolition of oriental robes and their replacement by English or German jackets and stockings, and forced his ministers to imitate the fashion of the French court.Whether they like it or not, Russian nobles must learn to smoke.Ladies can no longer imitate the Turkish fashion of avoiding male guests, but attend court banquets.
Science and Education Peter founded a small number of schools, mainly to train engineers, navigators and army officers.But these schools introduced Western science and education.Peter hired skilled craftsmen from abroad to manufacture military supplies for the navy and army, which promoted Russian industry.
"The Window to the West" Peter's Russia is almost cut off from the high seas.It is true that Russia has outlets in the Caspian and White Seas, but the Caspian Sea is an inner lake and the White Sea is blocked by ice and snow for most of the year.Peter knew that if Russia wanted to "Europeanize" and become prosperous, it must develop trade with Western Europe, so it needed to obtain ports in the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea.He called such ports "windows to the West."
At that time, Sweden controlled the Baltic Sea, and Turkey surrounded the Black Sea.
Fighting for the "window" Peter knew that his ambition would lead to war, but he did not hesitate.He joined forces with Poland and Denmark to attack Sweden.The young Swedish king Charles XII, who dreamed wildly of being compared to Alexander the Great, scored a stunning victory early in his battle with Peter.But Peter persevered tenaciously, and ten years later, in 10, he completely defeated Charles at the Battle of Poltava.Sweden ceded most of the Baltic coast to Russia.
In this way, Peter opened a "window to the west", and it was a big window.But he has made little headway against Turkey.
A new city Peter immediately founded a new city on the banks of the Neva at the head of the Gulf of Finland, one of the provinces he had captured from Sweden.It was called St. Petersburg, then "Petrograd", and then "Leningrad".Peter made it his main commercial port and also made it the capital of Russia.Through it, Western thought was imported into Russia; because of it, it was judged that Russia was becoming a great power.
Empress Catherine In Russia, the career started by Peter was carried forward by one of his heirs, the able Catherine II who reigned from 1762 to 1796.This woman is very rough, immoral and cruel, but she is very talented, and history calls her Empress Catherine.Like Peter, she was an absolute despot, ruling the army, church, and civil government.She opened other "windows" for Russia.She defeated the Turks and forced them to cede the northern shore of the Black Sea to Russia in 1774. In 1772, she had captured part of Poland. In 1793 she seized a second parcel of land in Poland, and in 1795, the year before her death, she acquired a third.In this way, Poland disappeared from the European map as an independent country.
The Habsburgs of Austria
Among the various cases of absolute monarchy, the Habsburg dynasty is the most famous example.We recall that Rudolf of the Habsburg dynasty was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1273, while at the same time proclaiming himself Grand Duke of Austria.Often referred to as Rudolf I, he was the true founder of the immense power of the Habsburg royal family.All but two of the Holy Roman Emperors from 1438 to 1806 belonged to the House of Habsburgs.
Both Charles V and Philip II of Spain belonged to the Habsburg royal family and were also despots.In the Netherlands, their tyranny sparked a revolution, and the Dutch were finally free after a long and hard fight.The Habsburgs occupied or claimed the right to occupy many countries, but they are considered to be primarily the rulers of Austria.In Austria, the grand dukes from Rudolph until recently were hereditary.
Maximilian of Austria In the second half of the 15th century, Maximilian became the head of the Habsburg family. He was a typical autocratic king and also one of the most ambitious and talented princes.He was not only the Archduke of Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor, but also brought under his rule the most complex nation and the vastest land in Europe through diplomacy, marriage and war.He married the heiress of the duke of Burgundy, and although King Louis XI made Burgundy part of France, Maximilian acquired a wealthier piece of land in the duchy through his wife.That is, the rich and prosperous Netherlands - the Netherlands and Belgium.
After negotiations, Maximilian allowed his only son to marry Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, the heiress.Ferdinand and Joanna had two sons Charles and Ferdinand during this time, both well-known figures in the 16th century.
Charles and Ferdinand Charles can be called Charles V, he inherited the Netherlands, Spain, Sicily and southern Italy; later he won the crown of the Holy Roman Empire by election, and also occupied the Duchy of Milan in northern Italy through campaigns.We remember that at the time of the Protestant Revolution it was during the reign of Charles V.Ferdinand only inherited Austria, annexed the principalities of Bohemia and Hungary through marriage and war, and later succeeded Charles as the emperor of Holy Rome.
Dictatorship and war So many countries in the hands of one family (the Habsburgs) caused panic among other royal houses in Europe, especially France, which was nearly besieged by the domains of Charles V and his son Philip II live.The panic and confrontation continued until the end of the 18th century, triggering many wars.During the 16th and 17th centuries, the struggle between France and the Habsburgs became entangled with several religious wars that plagued Europe.
In the second half of the 16th century, a Habsburg royal family in Spain suffered a heavy blow because of the victory of the Dutch Netherlands Revolution.By the mid-17th century, the power of the Habsburg dynasty was declining.The one in Spain, which rose to fame under the reigns of Charles V and Philip II from 1519 to 1598, was extinct by 1700.With the death of Charles VI in 1740, the Habsburgs of Austria also had male heirs extinct.
Maria Theresa Before his death, Charles VI, in true despotism, issued the "Edict of the State", insisting that his daughter Maria Theresa had the right to succeed him to the throne.He also took the precautionary step of getting most of the great powers in Europe to agree to their daughters as successors to the Austrian throne.She did become queen afterwards and reigned for 40 years.But as soon as she takes the throne, she is about to fight another tyrant.As mentioned above, Friedrich of Prussia captured Silesia because he felt that a 23-year-old girl had nothing to fear.France and Spain came to his aid, but Maria's people, especially the Hungarians, bravely gathered around her, and she also showed unexpected talents.In addition, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom hoped to take the opportunity to gain commerce and colonies by sacrificing France and Spain, so they all sided with Maria and joined the war.Her throne was secured, and she kept all her own lands except for Friedrich of Prussia, who ceded Silesia.This was the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748.
Her sons and daughters, Maria Theresa and Francis of Lorraine, married and their descendants continued to rule Austria until the end of World War I in 1918.Her two sons, Joseph and Leopold, were Holy Roman Emperors from 1765 to 1792.She had 15 children, among them Marie Antoninette was a well-known French queen, she and her husband Louis XVI both died in the Great Revolution.One of Maria's great-granddaughters, Maria Luisa, became the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte.There was also a great-granddaughter who became the wife of Pedro I of Brazil.Another great-great-grandson was Maximilian I of Mexico.
Therefore, in Austria and other countries, the Habsburg family maintained the tradition of royalty and absolutism for several generations.
[-]. Business and family feuds
Although both the Netherlands and the United Kingdom succeeded in changing the autocracy, the autocracy is still popular in most countries in continental Europe.From 1650 to 1750, the Bourbon dynasty of France, the Hohenzollern dynasty of Prussia, the Romanov dynasty of Russia, and the Habsburg dynasty of Austria all established the mighty kingdom on the grounds of the "divine right of kings". strong country.At the same time, they tried their best to expand their territory and strengthen their authority by sacrificing their neighbors with the same ambitions.In fact, the commercial conflicts and family feuds among European despots continued for a long time after 1750.
As mentioned above, the above-mentioned several autocratic monarchy powers and some countries often have fierce wars.The reasons were fourfold: (1) the pride and prestige of the family; (2) the desire for land and business interests in Europe; (3) the desire for colonies and trade outside Europe; between Christians and Catholics.
The last reason mentioned is not as obvious as the previous reasons after the 16th and 17th centuries.During the 18th century, commercial conflicts and feuds (wars) between families reached their peak.
Those wars of commerce and families, of nations and of colonies, waged in the name of the despots of Europe, were of course not confined to Europe.War spread to the lands, trade points, or colonies of any great power, and to the seas where warships or merchant ships met.The War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War were in fact world wars.
European colonies in 1689 Until 1689, Spain had established colonies in South America, Central America, Mexico, Florida, the West Indies and the Philippines.Portugal occupied some trading posts along the coasts of Brazil and Africa, India.The Netherlands controlled the East Indies and also had colonies in South Africa and the West Indies.In North America, Britain had colonies along the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to South Carolina, and trading posts in India and the West Indies.At this time, France was colonizing Canada and the Mississippi River Valley in America, and established a trading post in India.
Why attach importance to colonies The purpose of kings and politicians to own colonies is to acquire more land and rule a wider area.In some cases, religion is also the reason for gaining colonies.A pious king considered it a privilege and a duty to bring pagans under Christian rule.So did the kings of Spain, Portugal, and France, and only to a certain extent the kings of England.In addition, when the king saw many neighboring countries gaining colonies, he naturally did not want to lag behind.But the main reason to value colonies is that through taxation and trade, colonies will add wealth and power to the suzerain.
Colonies and Commerce Just as citizens at that time were seen as the enriching power of the nation, so colonies were primarily seen as a means of enriching the overlord.For example, Spain can get gold and silver from its colonies.From her North American colonies, England could obtain furs, fish, timber, cotton, hemp, tobacco, and some raw materials needed to process them into marketable manufactured goods.Every absolute monarchy intends to monopolize the trade of its colonies.Therefore, Spain ordered that only Spaniards can trade with the Spanish colonies, and the United Kingdom passed various navigation regulations as early as 1645, which stipulated that goods arriving or originating in the British colonies could only be transported by British ships.
Spain was able to obtain real gold and silver from her colonies.Although the colonies of other powerful countries do not have rich mineral resources, they can at least supply precious raw materials or sell goods.All these, gold and silver, and some goods for which gold and silver can be exchanged, are often obtained from the colonies by trade, that is, without payment of gold and silver.
Gold and Silver All economic progress at that time was measured in gold and silver.In other words, gold and silver were seen as the only forms of real wealth.This notion seems unreasonable today, but it was generally accepted for a long time.The political and economic policies of the European powers were adjusted according to this mercantilist theory.
Mercantilism Mercantilism or the theory of mercantilism believes that the pursuit of a trade surplus is above all else, that is, exports should be higher than imports.By selling more and buying less, the country will continue to increase its gold and silver storage.Colonies and commerce were considered necessary to secure the balance of trade.As an English writer said: "The way to increase our wealth and revenue is foreign trade, and in this we must always follow this law: In terms of value, what we sell to outsiders is more than what we consume. There are many of them."
One Cause of War The general adoption of mercantilism will lead to war, because the only way for one power to trade freely with another power's colonies is to conquer those colonies, or force its overlord to change the laws of trade.Beginning about 1689, a series of large-scale wars were waged and lasted until the end of the 18th century.Colonial Wars also determined the fate of each continent.Most of the war was between authoritarian France and Spain against non-authoritarian England and Holland.
Battle of the Palatinate The battle of the Palatine from 1688 to 1697 has been described above. In this battle, King Louis XIV of France wanted to defeat the Habsburg dynasty and capture the wealthy Pala on the banks of the Rhine. Tinate area.It was also mentioned above that in 1689, England and the Netherlands joined the war against Louis.While the war was going on in Europe, there was also a struggle between British and French colonies in America.Since William of Orange (not William the Reticent) was King of England, the Battle of the Palatine was known in America as King William's War.
The Battle of the Spanish Succession From 1701 to 1713, Louis XIV intended his grandson to take the throne in Spain and wanted to incorporate Spain into France. Britain and the Netherlands fought against France (and Spain) again.Britain gained obvious interests in the high seas and America: (1) France ceded the colony of Acadia to Britain, and Britain renamed it Nova Scotia; (2) France recognized Britain's control of Newfoundland and Hudson Bay (3) Spain ceded to Britain the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar, a large fortress and naval base at the entrance to the western Mediterranean; (4) Spain allowed limited trade between Britain and the Spanish American colonies.
Because Anne became Queen of England during the War of Spanish Succession from 1701 to 1713, the Battle of the American Colonies is known as Queen Anne's War.
The Austrian Succession War In 1740, after the death of the Habsburg King Charles VI of Austria, his daughter Maria Theresa succeeded to the throne.Questions about the succession, coupled with the ambitions of the Prussian King Friedrich II for Silesia, led to the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748.Britain and the Netherlands, as Friedrich's allies, once again stood on the side against France and Spain, and soon the whole world was on fire.As in Europe, these powers clashed in America, India, and at sea.The war was devastating, but not decisive. The 1748 peace treaty stipulated that Friedrich retained Silesia, but Maria also retained all other Habsburg possessions.France and Spain got nothing, and Britain kept its former colonies.This peace was only temporary, and it marked an important stage in the long semi-strife between France and Britain for the interests of the empire, especially the colonial empire.
From 1744 to 1748, the war in North America was fierce. In American history, it is called King George's War, because George II was the king of England at that time.
Seven Years' War Maria Theresa wanted to take back Silesia, so she formed an alliance with France and Russia to fight Friedrich. In 1756, another seven-year war broke out.But this time England is on Friedrich's side, because France is on the other side!
Sure enough, in 1754, war between Britain and France broke out again in the Americas.In this place, the war between the two powers lasted for 9 years, called the war against the French and Indians.In India, France and England once again fought for their empire.James Wolfe in Canada, Robert Clive in India, and William Pitt at home gave England victory.
The Paris Peace Treaty was a decisive battle, especially for Britain and France.In the four wars that began in 1689, Britain and France fought to capture North America; in the last two wars, they fought to capture India.In both America and India, Great Britain won decisive victories. The terms of the peace treaty signed in Paris in 1763 were as follows:
Friedrich retained Silesia; France relinquished her rights in the St. Lawrence valley and east of the Mississippi to her enemy England, and west of the Mississippi to her ally Spain; France retained several parts of the New World. a foothold off the coast of Africa, and six small trading posts in India.Britain became not only the master of the sea, but also the master of North America and India, and has since become the most powerful colonial empire.
Indirect results During the period from 1689 to 1763, the protracted war between the nations and the colonies resulted in at least three important indirect consequences: (1) The decline and loss of credibility of the Spanish and French autocratic regimes. A democratic revolution occurred in 1789, which soon spread to Spain; (2) Poland was partitioned and autocracy continued in Prussia and Russia; (3) The rise of the United States of America.In the colonial wars, especially the wars against the French and Indians, the British colonists in America realized their strength, saw the possibility of their unity, and gained experience and experience as soldiers and officials. train.In addition, the war against the French and Indians became an excuse to tax the colonies, and the colonies immediately quarreled with the mother country.
(End of this chapter)
[-]. The French Bourbon Dynasty
The despotisms of France and England grew up almost at the same time, but lasted longer than the despotism of England.Indeed, while the English absolutism in the seventeenth century was struck by the Puritan uprising and overthrown by the Glorious Revolution, the French absolutism was reaching its peak under Louis XIV.
The strong rule of the Bourbons There are several reasons why the French took longer to accept despotism than the British. (1) Compared with the Stuart family in England, the king and ministers of the Bourbon family who ruled France in the 17th century were much more capable than those in England.Henry IV, who issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, was a strong and popular leader who did a lot to heal the wounds of the Wars of Religion and promote the country's prosperity.His son Louis XIII (1610-1643), though weak, had the able helper of Cardinal Richelieu.Louis XIV (1643-1715) came to the throne as a child, but in his childhood and youth there was also a great prime minister, Cardinal Mazarin, who continued to carry out Richelieu's policy ably.
(2) In France, possible resistance to the despotism was curbed.The three-level meeting, which is equivalent to the British Parliament, has been ignored for 1614 years since 175 and was not allowed to take place.The defensive fortresses of the nobles were destroyed, and they could not oppose the king.Religious opponents (Huguenots) gained religious toleration and civil rights from 1598 to 1685.In England the middle classes are against the king, but in France they are for the king.
Upon his coming of age in 1661, the "Grand Monarch" Louis XIV took the French government into his own hands.He was a capable and popular despot who ruled for 54 years.Louis XIV has a dignified appearance, well-dressed clothes, and gentle behavior and speech, and has become a shining example of the "divine right of the king" monarchy.He is very fond of being called "The Great Monarch", which is exactly what he is.The nobles of France flocked to his splendid court.Foreign kings tried their best to imitate him, but without success.What else could the French people do but praise him and be proud of his power?
Arts and Letters under Louis XIV. Men of letters and artists of all kinds looked forward to basking in the king's sunshine, hoping to receive salaries and praise from his profligate patron.This is the "classical age" and "golden age" of French literature and art.Apart from war and diplomacy, on a cultural level, Louis' court belonged to the center of the world and was the envy and envy of the whole of Europe.
But Louis XIV did not live purely for pleasure and praise.He said, "A man shall rule by his work, and for his work." He worked hard, and he demanded hard work from his able ministers, whom he had handpicked.
Finance Director Colbert Louis XIV was quite lucky in choosing advisers and helpers, especially in appointing Colbert as Finance Director.Unlike most statesmen of the time, Colbert was neither aristocrat nor priest.He was the son of a merchant, and a shrewd merchant himself.
Colbert revolutionized French finance.He adopted the method of dismissing corrupt officials to increase the king's income, and at the same time he also reduced the direct tax on land collection to reduce the burden on farmers.
Colbert promoted industry, aided commerce, rewarded inventors, subsidized businessmen who started new businesses, hired skilled artisans from foreign countries, and prohibited artisans from his own country from leaving France.Canceled 17 holidays to allow more time for work.
Trade and Colonies Colbert firmly believed that in order to enrich France, more goods must be sold abroad than bought.So he tried to encourage exports and discourage imports.For example, he "subsidized" the French who built ships at home, while taxing ships bought from abroad.He granted charters and even large sums of money to colonial companies for the creation of French colonies in India, as well as in Africa and America.
To promote domestic trade, Colbert developed canals, built roads, and attempted to abolish transit and excise duties on interprovincial transport of goods.He formed a huge French navy and turned France into a maritime power.He also founded various academies to encourage science, architecture and music.Although he holds many public offices, he also manages his private business in an orderly manner.He served for nearly 20 years, and when he died in 1683, he left a large personal fortune.
The shortcomings of the autocratic regime of Louis XIV Although there are Louis XIV's prominent court and Colbert's outstanding achievements, it is still difficult for the French autocratic regime to remain unchanged for a long time.It relies too much on the will of the king.If the despot has always been able, wise, and kind, his paternalism will weaken his subjects, who will lose their drive and sense of responsibility.Even if despots have great talents, it is difficult to guarantee that they will always be wise and kind.Louis XIV did some unwise things, which many people think are unjust and evil.
One of the stupid things about the abolition of the Edict of Nantes was that not long after Colbert's death, he deprived many subjects of their right to worship freedom with the stroke of a pen.Huguenots were a small but very important minority among the French populace. The Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV in 1598 had given them cherished rights.This edict once allowed France to maintain religious peace for nearly a century, but it was flagrantly broken by Louis XIV in 1685.
Because of the repeal of the Edict, the ill-advised despotism deprived France of its leadership in the cause of religious toleration, while undermining much of the work that Colbert had done for the French economy. More than 30 Huguenots soon found that their freedom and privileges were deprived, and they fled to England, Holland and Prussia to settle down, and some went to the British colonies in America.The Huguenots who remained in Europe joined forces in other countries against Louis XIV.
Since the Huguenots were mostly middle-class, merchants, and skilled artisans, their emigration was a severe blow to French prosperity.
Another stupid thing Louis XIV did in the war of aggression was that he wasted money and sacrificed people's lives in the war of aggression.For most of his reign, he waged wars every year.He had a standing army of 30 to 40 men, more than any other country's army.His minister of war, Loire, was a gifted organizer; his chief engineer, Vauban, a genius in building and sieging fortresses;He gained great fame, caused countless troubles to his rivals, and left France impoverished and exhausted.
Some of Louis XIV's wars are enumerated in the ensuing brief account of his foreign policy.
Louis XIV's Foreign Policy His foreign policy had three main aims:
(1) To secure the natural frontiers of France.He wanted to expand the territory of France so that France could have as vast a territory as the Gauls in the ancient Roman Empire. Like the Gauls, France expanded to the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and the Rhine. Rivers are these "natural" frontiers.
(2) Expand the influence and power of the Bourbon dynasty.As the head of the Bourbon dynasty, Louis XIV wanted to gain wealth, position and even the throne for his family members and for his descendants.He does not hesitate to use the country to achieve the family's goals in diplomacy and war.
(3) Weakening the main competitor in Europe, the Habsburg dynasty.Centuries earlier, the Habsburg family had emerged as rulers (arch dukes) of Austria and later called Holy Roman Emperors. In 1643, when Louis XIV became king, a branch of the Habsburg family ruled Spain, part of Italy, the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium), Frans Comte (present-day eastern France), and western America. Is a colony.There was also a Habsburg ruler who belonged to the close relatives of the king of Spain, Archduke of Austria, King of Hungary, King of Bohemia (Czech Republic), and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.It can be said that the Habsburgs surrounded France.Louis hated his powerful neighbors and was especially jealous of the Habsburgs.He made foreign policy against them.
Louis XIV's Wars (1) Thirty Years' War.By the time of Louis XIV's accession, France had already participated in the Thirty Years' War (30-30) at the cunning Richelieu, on the side of the German Protestants - Sweden and Holland, with Austria and the Habsburgs of Spain. Dynasty confrontation.According to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1618, France received most of Alsace west of the Rhine; according to the Peace Treaty of 1648, France received some places in the north and south, so that the French border along the Belgian The Rynees extends to Belgium.According to the treaty of 1648, only 1659-year-old Louis XIV married the eldest daughter of the King of Spain of the Habsburg family.
(2) The war for the Spanish Netherlands. In 1665, the king of the Spanish Habsburg family died, and Louis XIV proposed that he inherit the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium).Thus triggered the war of 1667-1668, in which the French army continued to win until Britain, the Netherlands, and Sweden came to the aid of Spain.Despite this, Spain ceded southern Belgium, including the city of Lille, to France.
(3) The battle against the Netherlands.Louis invaded the Netherlands in 1672, annoyed that the Netherlands had helped defend Belgium against him, and at the same time gained Dutch territory in order to extend the French border to the Rhine.In addition, the Netherlands was a fierce competitor of France in terms of commerce.In this war, both Habsburgs helped the Netherlands.After 6 years of war, a peace treaty was signed, stipulating that the Netherlands retained its own territory and independence, but the Habsburg family of Spain ceded Frans Comte to France.
(4) Strasbourg and Luxembourg.Louis proposed the occupation of Strasbourg (a free city of the Holy Roman Empire in Alsace) in 1681, and sent troops to occupy the city.Likewise, in 1684 he captured Luxembourg and some other German towns.
(5) Palatinate Wars.In 1688, Louis attacked the Rhine-rich Palatine in order to gain valuable territory and weaken the Habsburg dynasty.The Habsburg dynasty received help from Sweden and other countries. In 1689, Britain and the Netherlands also joined the war against Louis.After nine years of war, he was forced to abandon his plans and return most of the towns he had occupied from 9 onwards, except Strasbourg.
(6) The War of the Spanish Succession.In 1701, Louis felt he had an opportunity to degrade the Habsburgs, elevate the Bourbons, and extend the French frontier to the Rhine.At that time, the last Habsburg king of Spain died, and his will was to give Spain to a grandson of Louis XIV!Louis was quite happy, shouting "No more Pyrenees!" He meant the annexation of Spain to France.But the Habsburgs of Austria desperately refused.What followed was a bitter war that lasted 12 years.Although Louis had the armies of France and Spain, almost all the countries of Europe rebelled against him.They don't want Louis to become stronger than he is now.
The peace treaty signed in 1713 stipulated that Louis could allow his grandson to inherit the Spanish throne, but he must strictly abide by the condition that France and Spain could never be merged.Louis did not reap the benefits for France.In fact he ceded some French colonies in America to England.
The impact of Louis XIV's many wars The "Grand Monarch" won only partial victories in many wars.He did weaken the Habsburg dynasty by making his grandson succeed to the Spanish throne.He enlarged France by annexing Alsace, Artois, a part of Flanders, and Franscomde.By conquering German Alsace, he sowed the seeds of Franco-German hatred for generations.He spent French power on small victories in European conquests at the expense of opportunities for colonies and commerce.Unnecessary wars and a flamboyant court squandered money and burdened the French people with heavy debts and taxes.Famine and plague have always been accompanied by war.His tyrannical rule produced a reign of terror.
The Death of Louis XIV It was too late when Louis XIV realized his blunder.Before he died, the aging autocratic king said to his successor: "Don't imitate my interest in construction and war, but work hard to reduce the suffering of the people." In 1715, he died and reigned for 72 years , the longest-serving king in history.But his glory faded long before he died.He made his people suffer so badly that, as his body passed through the streets, the rowdy crowd celebrated his death with cursing as a salute and booze.
The decline of the French autocracy Louis XV (1715-1774), the successor of Louis XIV, was lazy and extravagant by nature, even though he had capable ministers, it didn't help.France has been consumed by a lazy court and frequent wars.Although the honor of the Bourbons was still the main object of pursuit, the despotism of France was already corrupt in the 18th century.Until the successors of Louis XV, the Bourbon dynasty came to a tragic end in a great revolution.
The Hohenzollern dynasty in Prussia
Rise of Prussia Prussia and Russia were both young European nations that became powerful during the 18th century.Prussia was originally a state of Germany. During the Middle Ages, it was colonized and Germanized by the Teutonic Knights, and then became a principality.In 1618, the throne was succeeded by a prince of the Hohenzollern family, who also ruled the German state of Brandenburg.In this way, Brandenburg and Prussia were united under the rule of the Hohenzollern dynasty, and the Hohenzollern dynasty became stronger.
Great Elector From 1640 to 1688, the ruler of Hohenzollern, Friedrich Wilhelm, weakened the Habsburg dynasty, expanded its territory, and created his own army.He is one of the seven electors and has the power to determine the emperor's candidate.Due to his powerful influence, he earned the title of "Great Elector".
Like the Stuarts in England and the Bourbons in France, the Electors also became firm believers in an absolute monarchy.During his reign, he was a constitutional government, and the Parliament (also known as the Diet) had a say in making laws.But he denied the current system. After his death, he left a monarchy worthy of the name "divine right of the king" to his successors.
Creation of the Kingdom In the early 18th century, the Elector's son and successor, Friedrich I, Marquis of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, was granted the title of King of Prussia by the Habsburg Emperor (1701).So the "Kingdom of Prussia" refers to all the lands ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty, and the name "Brandenburg" has since been abandoned.
King Friedrich William I King Friedrich William I, who reigned from 1713 to 1740, was the son of Friedrich I and grandson of the Elector Friedrich William.He was a tactful and passionate despot who tried to force all his subjects to work and was proud of his army.He turned Prussia into a real military state.Prussia, ruled by Friedrich William I, was the twelfth largest country in Europe in size and population, but fourth in military power. A standing army of 12 men drained five-sevenths of the country's revenue.In addition, he introduced compulsory education in Prussia, mainly for military purposes.He was a firm believer that the more prosperous a country was, the better able it was to maintain a larger army.
The army of King Friedrich William I mainly played the role of deterring neighboring countries and defending the territory, and rarely launched aggressive wars.Through diplomacy and war, he obtained some territories south of the Swedish Baltic Sea.It was not until his son and successor, Friedrich II, that he took full advantage of the Prussian army and autocracy.History refers to Friedrich II as Friedrich the Great.
Friedrich the Great, King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, was the greatest king of the Hohenzollern dynasty.Although he is short in stature, he has bright blue eyes and a long and narrow nose.In his youth, Friedrich the Great was considered to be very unlike a king, because he liked poetry, music and dance, although he had received strict training from his strict father.Yet throughout his reign he was "a perfect king."He pursued prestige and honor through war and conquest, and also showed a strong desire to be an absolute king.
Friedrich's conquest Friedrich the Great used his powerful and capable army and the ample treasury left by his father to seize the throne from the young Habsburg heiress Maria Theresa immediately after inheriting the throne. Obtained the prosperous, rich and populous province of Silesia in Germany.In order to be able to keep Silesia, Friedrich had to fight two long-term wars, namely the Austrian Succession War (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).Many great powers helped Austria against him, but Friedrich was a military prodigy who won many victories against the odds.Prussia eventually kept Silesia.
Several World Wars The wars mentioned above are actually world wars.In North America, it was primarily a rivalry between Britain and France, known in American history as King George's War and the War on the French and Indians.
The first partition of Poland Later, Friedrich William joined Catherine II of Russia and Maria Theresa of Austria to partition Poland.In 1772, they each invaded a part of Poland.Friedrich expanded Prussia's territory and also ensured Prussia's status as a great power on par with Austria, Russia, France, and Great Britain.
"Enlightened autocratic monarch" Friedrich In the second half of the 18th century, almost all the monarchs in continental Europe were autocratic and brutal, but there were also "enlightened autocratic monarchs" who were shrewd and able to seek welfare for their subjects.Frederick the Great was one of them.He not only loves philosophy and literature, but also regards himself as "the first public servant of the country".He wrote: "The people do not exist for the ruler, but the ruler exists for the people." He worked hard, getting up before 6 o'clock every morning, and devoted himself to his official duties.
他为了人民的福利做了很多事：（1）让很多干练忠诚的人担任公职：（2）为普鲁士的经济福利，特别是农业，做了许多事；（3）编纂了一部最新法典；（4）准许宗教自由；（5）推进了教育与科学。
The Romanov Dynasty in Russia
While the powers of Spain, Holland, Sweden, and Poland were waning, Prussia and Russia were rising.While Louis XIV of France was showing off to the world, and the Elector and his son had laid a solid foundation for Prussia, a young man named Peter of the Romanov dynasty was building a powerful Russia in the north.He was Tsar Peter I of Russia who reigned from 1682 to 1725.He has a long tenure and considerable political achievements, so he is called Peter the Great in history.
Peter the Great In 1682, Peter became the Tsar, the same year William Penn planned to establish Philadelphia, and Robert Lasalle came to the mouth of the Mississippi River.Peter the Great found that Russia had a vast territory, but it was poor and backward, with few inhabitants and very little contact with Western Europe.Because it has no exports in the Baltic Sea or the Black Sea, it has little foreign trade.The Russian people are more Asian than European.
To a large extent, Peter seemed to belong to the barbarian family: manic, murderous, very vulgar in dress and behavior, and especially fond of drinking.But he had brains, firm will, sensitive curiosity, and relentless energy.As a young man he was fond of shipbuilding and traveled in Holland, England and some Western European countries in order to learn shipbuilding and other things.Traveling made him gradually believe in the need to "Europeanize" Russia.During his reign, he devoted himself to introducing Western European folk customs into Russia, and made himself and his successor an absolute monarch.He achieved both of these goals.
Establishing an Absolute Government Peter seized every opportunity to increase his authority and make himself an absolute despot.He solemnly declared: "The Czar is sovereign and despotistic; he is accountable to no one in the world." No Stuart or Bourbon king made such a claim.No one was more ruthless in his means to achieve his demands.
Army The Russian Tsar's feudal army was unreliable, and even the guards were not absolutely loyal to the Tsar.Once, when Peter was traveling, he received word that the guards were disobeying his orders and planning to depose him.In a rage, he immediately returned to Moscow to punish the guards.Some were flogged, 2000 were hanged or shredded, and 5000 were beheaded.He replaced the old feudal army with a new army of 20 men, which obeyed him absolutely.With such a loyal army, Peter's wish can be carried out.
Another obstacle to the ecclesiastical dictatorship was the Russian Orthodox Church.About a century ago, the Russian Orthodox Church became independent from the Grand Patriarch of Constantinople and had its own Grand Patriarch in Moscow.The influence of the Russian Church on the people was so great that Peter no longer wanted to let it have its way.He abolished the office of Grand Priest and brought the church under the jurisdiction of councils.This committee is actually under the "Holy Synod" controlled by him.In the end the Russian Church became a loyal supporter of the Tsar.
Government Of course, Peter not only introduced tyranny in the army and the church, but he also practiced tyranny in the government.He abolished the Duma, a medieval-style parliament, and created a small senate, which he appointed, to replace it.He also installed a secret police to monitor plots against him and his agents.He also brought magistrates throughout the country completely under his control.
Europeanizing Russia Peter was determined to make his subjects look more European than Asian.For example, he gathered the main people of Russia together and personally cut off their long beards and bushy mustaches; anyone who insisted on growing beards was severely punished.Next, he ordered the abolition of oriental robes and their replacement by English or German jackets and stockings, and forced his ministers to imitate the fashion of the French court.Whether they like it or not, Russian nobles must learn to smoke.Ladies can no longer imitate the Turkish fashion of avoiding male guests, but attend court banquets.
Science and Education Peter founded a small number of schools, mainly to train engineers, navigators and army officers.But these schools introduced Western science and education.Peter hired skilled craftsmen from abroad to manufacture military supplies for the navy and army, which promoted Russian industry.
"The Window to the West" Peter's Russia is almost cut off from the high seas.It is true that Russia has outlets in the Caspian and White Seas, but the Caspian Sea is an inner lake and the White Sea is blocked by ice and snow for most of the year.Peter knew that if Russia wanted to "Europeanize" and become prosperous, it must develop trade with Western Europe, so it needed to obtain ports in the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea.He called such ports "windows to the West."
At that time, Sweden controlled the Baltic Sea, and Turkey surrounded the Black Sea.
Fighting for the "window" Peter knew that his ambition would lead to war, but he did not hesitate.He joined forces with Poland and Denmark to attack Sweden.The young Swedish king Charles XII, who dreamed wildly of being compared to Alexander the Great, scored a stunning victory early in his battle with Peter.But Peter persevered tenaciously, and ten years later, in 10, he completely defeated Charles at the Battle of Poltava.Sweden ceded most of the Baltic coast to Russia.
In this way, Peter opened a "window to the west", and it was a big window.But he has made little headway against Turkey.
A new city Peter immediately founded a new city on the banks of the Neva at the head of the Gulf of Finland, one of the provinces he had captured from Sweden.It was called St. Petersburg, then "Petrograd", and then "Leningrad".Peter made it his main commercial port and also made it the capital of Russia.Through it, Western thought was imported into Russia; because of it, it was judged that Russia was becoming a great power.
Empress Catherine In Russia, the career started by Peter was carried forward by one of his heirs, the able Catherine II who reigned from 1762 to 1796.This woman is very rough, immoral and cruel, but she is very talented, and history calls her Empress Catherine.Like Peter, she was an absolute despot, ruling the army, church, and civil government.She opened other "windows" for Russia.She defeated the Turks and forced them to cede the northern shore of the Black Sea to Russia in 1774. In 1772, she had captured part of Poland. In 1793 she seized a second parcel of land in Poland, and in 1795, the year before her death, she acquired a third.In this way, Poland disappeared from the European map as an independent country.
The Habsburgs of Austria
Among the various cases of absolute monarchy, the Habsburg dynasty is the most famous example.We recall that Rudolf of the Habsburg dynasty was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1273, while at the same time proclaiming himself Grand Duke of Austria.Often referred to as Rudolf I, he was the true founder of the immense power of the Habsburg royal family.All but two of the Holy Roman Emperors from 1438 to 1806 belonged to the House of Habsburgs.
Both Charles V and Philip II of Spain belonged to the Habsburg royal family and were also despots.In the Netherlands, their tyranny sparked a revolution, and the Dutch were finally free after a long and hard fight.The Habsburgs occupied or claimed the right to occupy many countries, but they are considered to be primarily the rulers of Austria.In Austria, the grand dukes from Rudolph until recently were hereditary.
Maximilian of Austria In the second half of the 15th century, Maximilian became the head of the Habsburg family. He was a typical autocratic king and also one of the most ambitious and talented princes.He was not only the Archduke of Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor, but also brought under his rule the most complex nation and the vastest land in Europe through diplomacy, marriage and war.He married the heiress of the duke of Burgundy, and although King Louis XI made Burgundy part of France, Maximilian acquired a wealthier piece of land in the duchy through his wife.That is, the rich and prosperous Netherlands - the Netherlands and Belgium.
After negotiations, Maximilian allowed his only son to marry Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, the heiress.Ferdinand and Joanna had two sons Charles and Ferdinand during this time, both well-known figures in the 16th century.
Charles and Ferdinand Charles can be called Charles V, he inherited the Netherlands, Spain, Sicily and southern Italy; later he won the crown of the Holy Roman Empire by election, and also occupied the Duchy of Milan in northern Italy through campaigns.We remember that at the time of the Protestant Revolution it was during the reign of Charles V.Ferdinand only inherited Austria, annexed the principalities of Bohemia and Hungary through marriage and war, and later succeeded Charles as the emperor of Holy Rome.
Dictatorship and war So many countries in the hands of one family (the Habsburgs) caused panic among other royal houses in Europe, especially France, which was nearly besieged by the domains of Charles V and his son Philip II live.The panic and confrontation continued until the end of the 18th century, triggering many wars.During the 16th and 17th centuries, the struggle between France and the Habsburgs became entangled with several religious wars that plagued Europe.
In the second half of the 16th century, a Habsburg royal family in Spain suffered a heavy blow because of the victory of the Dutch Netherlands Revolution.By the mid-17th century, the power of the Habsburg dynasty was declining.The one in Spain, which rose to fame under the reigns of Charles V and Philip II from 1519 to 1598, was extinct by 1700.With the death of Charles VI in 1740, the Habsburgs of Austria also had male heirs extinct.
Maria Theresa Before his death, Charles VI, in true despotism, issued the "Edict of the State", insisting that his daughter Maria Theresa had the right to succeed him to the throne.He also took the precautionary step of getting most of the great powers in Europe to agree to their daughters as successors to the Austrian throne.She did become queen afterwards and reigned for 40 years.But as soon as she takes the throne, she is about to fight another tyrant.As mentioned above, Friedrich of Prussia captured Silesia because he felt that a 23-year-old girl had nothing to fear.France and Spain came to his aid, but Maria's people, especially the Hungarians, bravely gathered around her, and she also showed unexpected talents.In addition, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom hoped to take the opportunity to gain commerce and colonies by sacrificing France and Spain, so they all sided with Maria and joined the war.Her throne was secured, and she kept all her own lands except for Friedrich of Prussia, who ceded Silesia.This was the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748.
Her sons and daughters, Maria Theresa and Francis of Lorraine, married and their descendants continued to rule Austria until the end of World War I in 1918.Her two sons, Joseph and Leopold, were Holy Roman Emperors from 1765 to 1792.She had 15 children, among them Marie Antoninette was a well-known French queen, she and her husband Louis XVI both died in the Great Revolution.One of Maria's great-granddaughters, Maria Luisa, became the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte.There was also a great-granddaughter who became the wife of Pedro I of Brazil.Another great-great-grandson was Maximilian I of Mexico.
Therefore, in Austria and other countries, the Habsburg family maintained the tradition of royalty and absolutism for several generations.
[-]. Business and family feuds
Although both the Netherlands and the United Kingdom succeeded in changing the autocracy, the autocracy is still popular in most countries in continental Europe.From 1650 to 1750, the Bourbon dynasty of France, the Hohenzollern dynasty of Prussia, the Romanov dynasty of Russia, and the Habsburg dynasty of Austria all established the mighty kingdom on the grounds of the "divine right of kings". strong country.At the same time, they tried their best to expand their territory and strengthen their authority by sacrificing their neighbors with the same ambitions.In fact, the commercial conflicts and family feuds among European despots continued for a long time after 1750.
As mentioned above, the above-mentioned several autocratic monarchy powers and some countries often have fierce wars.The reasons were fourfold: (1) the pride and prestige of the family; (2) the desire for land and business interests in Europe; (3) the desire for colonies and trade outside Europe; between Christians and Catholics.
The last reason mentioned is not as obvious as the previous reasons after the 16th and 17th centuries.During the 18th century, commercial conflicts and feuds (wars) between families reached their peak.
Those wars of commerce and families, of nations and of colonies, waged in the name of the despots of Europe, were of course not confined to Europe.War spread to the lands, trade points, or colonies of any great power, and to the seas where warships or merchant ships met.The War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War were in fact world wars.
European colonies in 1689 Until 1689, Spain had established colonies in South America, Central America, Mexico, Florida, the West Indies and the Philippines.Portugal occupied some trading posts along the coasts of Brazil and Africa, India.The Netherlands controlled the East Indies and also had colonies in South Africa and the West Indies.In North America, Britain had colonies along the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to South Carolina, and trading posts in India and the West Indies.At this time, France was colonizing Canada and the Mississippi River Valley in America, and established a trading post in India.
Why attach importance to colonies The purpose of kings and politicians to own colonies is to acquire more land and rule a wider area.In some cases, religion is also the reason for gaining colonies.A pious king considered it a privilege and a duty to bring pagans under Christian rule.So did the kings of Spain, Portugal, and France, and only to a certain extent the kings of England.In addition, when the king saw many neighboring countries gaining colonies, he naturally did not want to lag behind.But the main reason to value colonies is that through taxation and trade, colonies will add wealth and power to the suzerain.
Colonies and Commerce Just as citizens at that time were seen as the enriching power of the nation, so colonies were primarily seen as a means of enriching the overlord.For example, Spain can get gold and silver from its colonies.From her North American colonies, England could obtain furs, fish, timber, cotton, hemp, tobacco, and some raw materials needed to process them into marketable manufactured goods.Every absolute monarchy intends to monopolize the trade of its colonies.Therefore, Spain ordered that only Spaniards can trade with the Spanish colonies, and the United Kingdom passed various navigation regulations as early as 1645, which stipulated that goods arriving or originating in the British colonies could only be transported by British ships.
Spain was able to obtain real gold and silver from her colonies.Although the colonies of other powerful countries do not have rich mineral resources, they can at least supply precious raw materials or sell goods.All these, gold and silver, and some goods for which gold and silver can be exchanged, are often obtained from the colonies by trade, that is, without payment of gold and silver.
Gold and Silver All economic progress at that time was measured in gold and silver.In other words, gold and silver were seen as the only forms of real wealth.This notion seems unreasonable today, but it was generally accepted for a long time.The political and economic policies of the European powers were adjusted according to this mercantilist theory.
Mercantilism Mercantilism or the theory of mercantilism believes that the pursuit of a trade surplus is above all else, that is, exports should be higher than imports.By selling more and buying less, the country will continue to increase its gold and silver storage.Colonies and commerce were considered necessary to secure the balance of trade.As an English writer said: "The way to increase our wealth and revenue is foreign trade, and in this we must always follow this law: In terms of value, what we sell to outsiders is more than what we consume. There are many of them."
One Cause of War The general adoption of mercantilism will lead to war, because the only way for one power to trade freely with another power's colonies is to conquer those colonies, or force its overlord to change the laws of trade.Beginning about 1689, a series of large-scale wars were waged and lasted until the end of the 18th century.Colonial Wars also determined the fate of each continent.Most of the war was between authoritarian France and Spain against non-authoritarian England and Holland.
Battle of the Palatinate The battle of the Palatine from 1688 to 1697 has been described above. In this battle, King Louis XIV of France wanted to defeat the Habsburg dynasty and capture the wealthy Pala on the banks of the Rhine. Tinate area.It was also mentioned above that in 1689, England and the Netherlands joined the war against Louis.While the war was going on in Europe, there was also a struggle between British and French colonies in America.Since William of Orange (not William the Reticent) was King of England, the Battle of the Palatine was known in America as King William's War.
The Battle of the Spanish Succession From 1701 to 1713, Louis XIV intended his grandson to take the throne in Spain and wanted to incorporate Spain into France. Britain and the Netherlands fought against France (and Spain) again.Britain gained obvious interests in the high seas and America: (1) France ceded the colony of Acadia to Britain, and Britain renamed it Nova Scotia; (2) France recognized Britain's control of Newfoundland and Hudson Bay (3) Spain ceded to Britain the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar, a large fortress and naval base at the entrance to the western Mediterranean; (4) Spain allowed limited trade between Britain and the Spanish American colonies.
Because Anne became Queen of England during the War of Spanish Succession from 1701 to 1713, the Battle of the American Colonies is known as Queen Anne's War.
The Austrian Succession War In 1740, after the death of the Habsburg King Charles VI of Austria, his daughter Maria Theresa succeeded to the throne.Questions about the succession, coupled with the ambitions of the Prussian King Friedrich II for Silesia, led to the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748.Britain and the Netherlands, as Friedrich's allies, once again stood on the side against France and Spain, and soon the whole world was on fire.As in Europe, these powers clashed in America, India, and at sea.The war was devastating, but not decisive. The 1748 peace treaty stipulated that Friedrich retained Silesia, but Maria also retained all other Habsburg possessions.France and Spain got nothing, and Britain kept its former colonies.This peace was only temporary, and it marked an important stage in the long semi-strife between France and Britain for the interests of the empire, especially the colonial empire.
From 1744 to 1748, the war in North America was fierce. In American history, it is called King George's War, because George II was the king of England at that time.
Seven Years' War Maria Theresa wanted to take back Silesia, so she formed an alliance with France and Russia to fight Friedrich. In 1756, another seven-year war broke out.But this time England is on Friedrich's side, because France is on the other side!
Sure enough, in 1754, war between Britain and France broke out again in the Americas.In this place, the war between the two powers lasted for 9 years, called the war against the French and Indians.In India, France and England once again fought for their empire.James Wolfe in Canada, Robert Clive in India, and William Pitt at home gave England victory.
The Paris Peace Treaty was a decisive battle, especially for Britain and France.In the four wars that began in 1689, Britain and France fought to capture North America; in the last two wars, they fought to capture India.In both America and India, Great Britain won decisive victories. The terms of the peace treaty signed in Paris in 1763 were as follows:
Friedrich retained Silesia; France relinquished her rights in the St. Lawrence valley and east of the Mississippi to her enemy England, and west of the Mississippi to her ally Spain; France retained several parts of the New World. a foothold off the coast of Africa, and six small trading posts in India.Britain became not only the master of the sea, but also the master of North America and India, and has since become the most powerful colonial empire.
Indirect results During the period from 1689 to 1763, the protracted war between the nations and the colonies resulted in at least three important indirect consequences: (1) The decline and loss of credibility of the Spanish and French autocratic regimes. A democratic revolution occurred in 1789, which soon spread to Spain; (2) Poland was partitioned and autocracy continued in Prussia and Russia; (3) The rise of the United States of America.In the colonial wars, especially the wars against the French and Indians, the British colonists in America realized their strength, saw the possibility of their unity, and gained experience and experience as soldiers and officials. train.In addition, the war against the French and Indians became an excuse to tax the colonies, and the colonies immediately quarreled with the mother country.
(End of this chapter)
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