A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 26 The American Revolution
With the end of the French-Indian War in 1763 (the Seven Years' War in the Americas), a revolution broke out in the 13 British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America shortly thereafter. Turned to the use of force, and finally, with the help of France and other European countries, it broke away from Britain in 1783 and gained independence.Initially, the leaders of the colonies believed that they were loyal to Britain and should protect British interests.But they worked step by step and vigorously developed the colony until the strength of the colony increased, gradually becoming a free and independent country, and established a new national government - the United States of America.

This revolution in the United States served as a model for revolutions elsewhere.The American federal system was initially conceived as a guinea pig, but it proved so successful that it was widely emulated around the world.We know that post-revolutionary British politics in the seventeenth century stagnated, steeped in an aristocratic parliament and a constitutional monarchy.While British politics stagnated, the United States ran ahead.Just as a torch is passed from one person to another, this kind of free and independent political thought is also passed from one country to another, eventually forming a political democracy.

[-]. The Fuse of the American Revolution

As mentioned above, the wars between the colonies, especially the French and Indian wars, contributed to the outbreak of the American Revolution.The war not only allowed the people of the colonies to see their own ability to fight, but also made it possible for the colonies to unite with each other. They also learned a wealth of military experience; but at the same time, they also formed a confrontation with the British mainland.At this time, the laws of navigation were stricter, and there were [-] British troops stationed in America.The British government ordered that the people of the colonies must pay taxes to support these troops, while the people of the colonies shouted that they did not want these garrisons, and strongly protested against the taxation of Parliament.They believed that only the colonial assemblies composed of their own representatives had the right to levy taxes, and those without colonial representatives had no right to levy taxes.Various controversies and quarrels also spread from this.

Over the past 100 years, the British government has introduced a series of laws in an attempt to control the trade of the colonies.For example, it is required that all goods in the colonies must be transported by British ships, and some of these goods can only be sold to British merchants.The people of the colonies believed that these laws were only good for England and not fair to them.So for a period of time, the laws of navigation were not really enforced.However, after the end of the French and Indian War, Britain began to prepare for the specific procedures for implementing the law of navigation.

Tariff laws England tried to impose taxes on certain goods imported by the colonies, but this aroused the anger of the colonists, as did the laws imposing tariffs and the laws of navigation. A new tariff law was introduced in 1764, called the Sugar Act, and a plan for its implementation was drawn up.This law required imports of sugar and certain goods to be taxed, as well as some exports.The colonial people were very disgusted with this kind of decree that hindered trade exchanges, and strongly opposed the powers controlled by the British.But the king's officials were always stationed in the port, and boarded the ship to collect taxes at any time.

Anti-smuggling cooperates with the law In order to avoid paying taxes on imported goods, some importers will smuggle and smuggle, that is, avoid regular ports, drive ships to secluded places, unload goods at night, and hide in places that are difficult for officials to detect.So the courts issued anti-smuggling cooperation statutes to officials—written orders that empowered them to search ships and homes for taxable goods.But this decree of compulsory house searches aroused great dissatisfaction among the people.

The Stamp Act In 1765 Parliament passed a law requiring revenue stamps to be affixed to brochures, newspapers, legal documents, etc.The purpose of issuing revenue stamps is to increase the revenue of the British government.But the tax decree sparked public grievances and unrest.The colonial assemblies approved the resolution of the protest; a congress of representatives from the nine colonies was convened in New York to present a petition to King George III.The people of the colonies are trying to organize and act together.

The Garrison Act abolished the Stamp Duty Act in 1766, but the Parliament insisted on imposing this tax on the colonies and increased troops to suppress it.The laws authorizing the cantonment of troops in urban areas of the Americas were known as Garrison Laws.As a result, 1000 soldiers were sent to Boston.Fights and wars are imminent.Boston became the focus of the struggle. In 1773, the people of Boston destroyed a tax-paid tea ship.In order to punish the Bostonians, the Assembly ordered that all trade in Boston Harbor cease. In April 1775 the war began.

Reasons Summary Some of the reasons in the American Revolution are as follows: (1) Congress taxed the colonies and issued laws that hindered their trade; (2) Anti-smuggling laws—courts authorized tax collectors to search homes for smuggled goods; (3) Punitive laws of Parliament, that is, laws punishing the resistance of the people of the colonies, such as the Boston Harbor Act; (4) Justification and constant encouragement, James Otis against the Smuggling Assistance Act, Patrick Henry against Stamp Duty, Samuel Adams opposed British interference in affairs, and Thomas Paine called for independence; (5) The battles and turmoil caused by the British troops stationed in urban areas of America, such as the "Boston Massacre" in 1770; (6) Strong theoretical basis, "Taxation without representation is tyranny"; (7) Americans are confident that they can govern themselves and be independent, and this powerful emotion continues to deepen.

[-]. Declaration of Independence

In the minds of some colonial peoples, the desire for more freedom turned into a desire for independence.Some Britons disapproved of continued control of the colonies by King George and Parliament, and not all colonists supported Samuel Adams, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, and those who fought for independence pioneer.For example, there are some Americans who have always been loyal to the King of England. These people are called "Royalists" and "Tories".Still others have a degree of indecision and apathy.But a third group is actively fighting for freedom, they are called "Patriots".The continuous struggle of these people was finally won after many years.

The Continental Congress, a body of representatives representing the colonies, often met in Philadelphia, and it was dealing or trying to continue dealing with colonial affairs and matters of war.This delegation was called the "Continental Congress".George Washington served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental (United States) Army.A committee of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and others drafted the Declaration of Independence, which was formally adopted by the Continental Congress on July 1776, 7.It declared the "United Colonies" to be "separate and free states."Almost at the same time, the states also adopted constitutions (Basic Laws), and the following year, the Continental Congress drafted the Articles of Confederation that later became the Constitution of the United States.

Benjamin Franklin and others were sent to France and other countries in Europe that were at odds with Britain, begging to be recognized and helped.Thomas Paine still believed that the power of kings was not granted by gods; Thomas Jefferson even believed that continuous revolution was a good medicine for curing democracy; Patrick Henry used the theory of "give me liberty or give me death" to inspire patriotic people.

[-]. Gaining independence

Liberty and independence mean the sacrifice of the majority.For eight full years the small patriotic army fought bitterly and long, sometimes defeated, sometimes hungry and cold, as at Forge in the winter of 1777-1778, and on the flooded Illinois plains of 1778-1779; Will win, as in Trenton and Princeton, Saratoga, Cowpens, Kings Hill and Yorktown.

After the famous American victory at Saratoga in eastern New York in October 1777, France publicly promised to help.Early the following year it entered into an alliance with the United States.Shortly after France and Spain formed an alliance, the Netherlands joined the war against England.In this way the thirteen states have the most valuable and most urgently needed partners, but these allies do not like the United States, but because they both hate and fear Britain.In fact, heroes such as Lafayette in France, von Steuim in Prussia, and Pulaski in Poland all generously helped Washington, but these countries are all for their own interests, otherwise they generally would not give generous aid .

During the long struggle between Britain's many enemies from 1689 to 1763, France ceded its core colony Canada and most of India's possessions to Britain; so France has always held the idea of ​​regaining some of its colonies and weakening Britain.Spain intends to recover lost Florida, Minorca and Gibraltar.The Netherlands had gradually lost its ability to compete in trade with England, which had declared war on the Netherlands.Some countries in Europe were dissatisfied with Britain's search and robbing of neutral ships during the war, so they formed an armed neutral alliance to resist Britain in order to protect their commercial interests.

Britain's Unfavorable Situation Thus, in the American Revolution, Britain had to fight many enemies.In addition, there were more troubles: there was a rebellion in Ireland; and, as mentioned above, some British people did not support the war.William Pitt, Edmund Burke, and Charles James Fox, among others, were openly friendly to the United States in Parliament.While sending soldiers and ships to the Americas, Britain defended her south coast against France and Spain and sent fleets to fight the Dutch and French in the North Sea, the Caribbean, and as far away as the Bay of Bengal.The war in Britain was raging on three continents.

The reason for the victory of the United States is that the unfavorable situation of Britain itself has naturally created a chance for the United States to win, and the manpower, financial resources and ships of France are also valuable help to the United States.But the most important and most powerful is the bravery and persistence of American patriots, which are worth remembering forever.The famous British historian WZH Leckie believes that the most important factor for the victory of the American Revolution is Washington's character and achievements.His evaluation is quite intriguing.

美国独立战争中还发生了一系列具有决定性的革命事件：1777年10月美国在萨拉托加获胜，1778年2月与法国签订盟约，1781年10月英军总司令康沃利斯在弗吉尼亚州的约克敦向华盛顿以及法国同盟国投降。1783年9月在巴黎签署和约。

As a result of the war (1) the United States gained political independence; (2) France recovered two colonies - Senegal in West Africa and Tobago in the West Indies; (3) Minorca and Florida returned to Spain; (4) ) The Netherlands got nothing.

Although France received little benefit from the war, it was satisfied to see Britain's most important colony split off.This is not fatal to the British colonial empire, but it is also a serious damage.

Effects on France The American Revolution had a great impact on France.The navy and army were exhausted in the war, emptying the royal treasury and hastening the demise of the French monarchy.Also, most of the French had supported the Americans against the king, and now they are ready to fight their own king.The French Revolution soon followed.

British Compensation Warren Hastings was promoting British power in India when the American colonies gained independence. Lord Cornwallis surrendered to Washington at Yorktown in 1781, replacing Hastings in 1785.Hastings was a failure in America but a success in India.

Subsequently, after 1783, Britain had two important power expansions.Once it captured the Straits Settlements and took control of the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia.The other was the settlement of the vast island landmass of Australia, which was unknown until Captain James Cook's famous voyage in 1770.

[-]. The US Constitution

During the revolutionary period, the original constitution or charter of each colony (state) was revised, and new laws were drafted if there was no constitution.What was formerly the Colonial Assembly is now the legislature of the individual states.Later in the Revolution, the old federal constitution, the Articles of Confederation, drafted by the Continental Congress during the war, was replaced by a new law.The new law was drafted by a special delegation during the meeting in Philadelphia. This is the 1787 Constitutional Convention in American history.

The New Constitution The New Constitution, the Federal Constitution created in Philadelphia in 1787, remains the Constitution of the United States today.It changes only slightly in form, since each subsequent revision has been mostly an addition, but varies widely in usage and interpretation.Also because the main constitution is developing in the direction of democracy and nationalism, its form is more mature.

The drafters of the new law of 1787 gave the federal government greater powers than the old constitution, such as the power to regulate commerce and collect taxes.It also provided for the division of the government into three branches, whereas in the old law the national government consisted only of the Continental Congress.The three branches of the new government are Congress, the legislature, the judiciary headed by the Supreme Court, and the executive branch headed by the president.

"Constraints" According to the Constitution drafted in 1787 and entered into force in 1789, the three branches that make up the national government were to "constrain" each other.Moreover, the Senate, elected by the legislatures of the states, that is, the upper house of Congress, must always check the House of Representatives, elected by the vote of the people.The purpose of giving all states equal representation in the Senate is to allow small states to check large states that have many representations in the House of Representatives.

Missing Democracy Whites hold about half the right to vote, while women and blacks don't have it at all.The right to vote is in the hands of the states and is completely independent of the national government.Most of those who wrote the constitution and put it above the national government, such as Washington, Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, were more aristocratic than democratic.They don't trust common people, and their goal is to balance aristocratic rule and democratic politics.

The development of democratic politics With the advancement of time, democratic politics has gradually developed.The constitutions of the states became more and more democratic, and more men had the right to vote.The federal government became more democratic as more voters in the states voted for members of Congress.There are also states that give the choice of "presidential electors" (the president and vice president are selected by "presidential electors") to the voters instead of the state legislature, so the election of the president has become more democratic up. Under Andrew Jackson's presidency from 1829 to 1837, the United States of America was already riding the wave of democracy.

[-]. Significance of the American Revolution
The American Revolution displayed more fully the principles of the English Revolution of the seventeenth century.It greatly reinforced the idea of ​​"revolutionary rights," the right of the people to overthrow an oppressive government.The government established after the revolution was not fully democratic, but, as noted above, it gradually became more democratic.

After the revolution, Americans experimented with various political forms and were deeply affected, as well as other countries that borrowed from these political forms.Now enumerate and illustrate the attempts of the United States: (1) the hereditary king was replaced by an elected president; (2) the government was bound and based by an express constitution; (3) "separation of powers" and "checks"; (4) a federal republic, new to many lands; (5) electing legislators (in the states and lower house of Congress) in proportion to Produce, that is, elect a representative from among several persons.

There are republics on all continents of the world today, but the United States is the first large-scale modern republic.This was the first great modern experiment in a federal system, in which the powers of the states play an active part in a national union.In the United States, the establishment of the republic and the development of democratic politics deeply affected the whole world.

(End of this chapter)