A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 31 Europe in Turmoil
After Napoleon was overthrown, Europe gained temporary peace, but not freedom.The Congress of Vienna defended the interests of the princes of yore, not of the recently awakened people.Nationality is thwarted, democracy is blamed.The industrial revolution brought machines, but it did not bring happiness to ordinary people.The capitalists were rich and powerful, but for a long time left many workers poorer and less autonomous.

The bourgeoisie generally expected a more enlightened government and strongly hoped that they could play a greater role in it.They value personal freedom, freedom of speech, and economic freedom.Many peasants hate the remaining feudal system and serfdom in various countries.The workers in the factory were also very dissatisfied with the status quo.In continental Europe in the early 19th century, workers had a humble status, but as the industrial revolution progressed, they gradually became important.

Restoration of Kings Louis XVIII of the House of Bourbon was proclaimed King of France.Ferdinand VII of the House of Bourbon is restored to the throne in Spain.There was also a Bourbon who was made King of Naples and Sicily.The royal family of Savoy regained its dominion in Sardinia.The Prince of Orange of the Netherlands is back on the throne.The Pope was once again made ruler of Rome and central Italy, and some of the German princes were reasserted.The Habsburg emperor of Austria got Lombardy and Venice in northern Italy.Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were awarded to some of his relatives.King Hohenzollern of Prussia expanded his territory and power, but Prussia was still only one of many German states.

Patriotism and Liberty Neglected The diplomats at the helm of the Congress of Vienna showed in many respects a disregard for, or indifference to, the wishes of the people.Nationalism and democracy face fear and resistance.Tsar Alexander I of Russia was a liberal, but he only allowed himself to exercise all freedom, and his people could only exercise the freedom he gave.Many Germans hope to achieve national unity, but Germany, like Poland, is still divided.Many Italians hoped to overthrow Austrian rule and unify the scattered people, but Italian politics was also divided, with many areas under Austrian military control.

Duke Metternich from Austria, the Duke of Metternich, who presided over the Conference of Vienna, was the spiritual pillar of the conference and a powerful embodiment of the old order.His highest purpose is to make the autocracy and Austria a safe world.He was determined not to form a strong government in Germany; he tried to keep Prussia out of the picture; as for Italy, he openly declared that it was only a "geographical term" rather than a country.He succeeded (temporarily) in bringing Italy under Austrian dominion to decay and fragments; but he failed to keep Prussia out of sight for long.Moreover, he can't control the people's eager desire for national unity and a democratic system. This desire has been deeply rooted since it spread from the French prophets and dictator Napoleon.

The continuous development of ideas such as democracy, national patriotism, religious tolerance, and modern industry will, with a stormy tide, wash away the ideological flood dams built by Metternich and his whole life.

Holy Alliance and Non-Holy Alliance Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance have done some good things in terms of preventing war and bringing peace to exhausted nations.But they curb people's right to participate in politics, they do not recognize the will of ethnic groups to unite politically, they stifle free thought in politics or religion, and in so many ways they are, if not entirely useless, then somewhat obsolete.At any rate, the powerful alliance of these despots was feared, their pious confessions were no longer believed, and resistance soon arose in many places.In Latin America, as mentioned above, revolutions were already underway, and even in the strongholds of the European autocratic system, the voices of the people calling for freedom could hardly be restrained.

[-]. Metternich fights rebellion
The main reason why Metternich was able to maintain the autocratic system successfully in Central Europe for a while was to rely on privileges rather than the popular will of the people.Even Austria, Metternich's home and fortress, was not satisfied with the great ruler of northern Italy and much of the neighboring region.At least many people are dissatisfied and unhappy.Still others had embraced the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity promoted by the French Revolution, and they resented Metternich's attempts to contain and kill them.

Unstable Austria Two events have sparked instability in Austria.First, its political program (Metternich's) was outdated; second, it attempted to rule peoples of all nationalities, such as Italians, Germans, Slavs, etc., but none of these peoples wanted to be ruled by it.Austria is like a hard-covered lid on a boiling water pot, which is in danger of exploding at any time.

To be sure, Italy does not want to be fragmented.Since Italians speak the same language, it means that they belong to the same nation.They are not satisfied with just a "geographical noun".They were most dissatisfied with Metternich's rule and were subject to Austrian military control.In order to govern, Austria must divide it, but the Italians hate division and long to be united.They plot secretly, and sometimes publicly, in their desire to be free. In 1820 uprisings broke out in Naples and Sardinia.Groups of the Italian Secret Society spread all over the place, incessantly agitating for freedom and unity.The Carbonarans are the most famous of these political groups. In 1831, an organization called the "Young Italian Party" was formed, which soon developed into a more influential organization.

In Germany, as mentioned above, many of Napoleon's unification efforts were undermined by the Congress of Vienna.The "German Confederation" established under the control of Austria assumed a gesture towards national unity.This German Confederation is just a substitute for the dying Holy Roman Empire, not a union in the true sense, but a loose alliance of almost independent states.The secessionist policy that Metternich defended was part of his program of championing the power of an absolute monarch.

Napoleon's efforts had pointed the way for unity.German patriotism and liberalism had been awakened in the struggle against Napoleon.The will of the people to advocate a constitution and national unity has been very strong in many places, but people like Metternich expressed their opposition to it to the end.But the flames of liberalism and national patriotism, in spite of threats and orders, burned more vigorously.It was a fire of hope for the people of Germany, Italy and many other countries.

[-]. Resistance in Eastern Europe
In Russia, Alexander I was indeed sincerely pursuing peace and justice, and expressing the virtues of Christianity, but he was short-sighted, and his good intentions did not succeed.He wants to treat his people kindly, but he doesn't like people to do things for him.He treats them like children.Russians were already in disarray under his rule, so when he died in 1825 liberals rose up against his younger brother Nicholas I.They were eager for Alexander's other younger brother, Konstantin, to inherit the position of tsar, because they felt that he was more advocating freedom and progress.The resistance was soon suppressed, but many people still had illusions about freedom.

The Greek Harvest The Greek revolt has been described above.The Greeks fought against the Turkish Sultan for their independence.We are not surprised that Lord Byron sympathized with the Greeks and decided to go with them.But England, Russia, and France supported them, which is a little strange.The Russian tsar was an autocratic dictatorship, but the French rulers at this time were all reactionary, and even the British government at that time did not advocate freedom.But the English aristocrats had received a Greek classical education, so they had a wide range of sympathy for the Greeks.Also, the Turkish Sultan was not very likable.So in 1829 he was forced to recognize Greece as an independent kingdom.

[-]. The Bourbon kings of Spain and France
Ferdinand VII of Spain turned out to be very conservative and firmly believed in the program of the autocratic monarchs, so a revolution broke out in 1820.The result was a re-implementation of a liberal constitution drafted in 1812.At this time, Louis XVIII of France intervened.He and his courtiers tried hard to restore France's prestige.The French army attacked Spain in 1820, successfully restoring Spain's king and autocratic system, and was stationed for four years, supervising the smooth completion of many things in accordance with the old order.The Spanish leaders finally adopted a policy of moderation, which not only failed to satisfy the needs of the liberals, but also failed to satisfy the needs of the reactionaries.

In 1820, Portugal also broke out a revolution against the autocratic system.

In France, the people put up with Louis XVIII because he was very kind and easy;People often pin their hopes on the change of rulers.Louis died in 1824 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Charles X.This replacement is not better, but worse.Charlie is not only authoritarian, but also stubborn and reckless.Soon he came into conflict with the National Assembly and dissolved it.He also amended the electoral law so that only those who owned land had the right to vote.When he went hunting afterwards, he had no idea how much he had done, even though Metternich (it turned out to be Metternich) had warned him of the dangers of excessive use of autocratic power.

Before long, Charlie realized his mistake with astonishment, and regretted it.The French people not only did not forget "August", but also did not forget the concessions made by Louis XVIII in the charter in 1814.

1830. The Revolution of [-]

In 1830, starting from France, unrest broke out in many places. In July, shortly after Charles X’s high-handed measures, the people of Paris rioted, shouting the slogan “Overthrow the Bourbon Dynasty!” The red, white, and blue tricolor flags during the Great Revolution once again fluttered in the wind over Paris.Lafayette, the venerable hero of the first two revolutions, took command and prepared to form a provisional government.Charles X fled to England, and a distant brother of Charles, Louis Philip, was named king, which is "the king by the grace of God and the will of the people".

Louis-Philippe, who had fought in the revolutionary struggle of 1792, always presented himself as a middle-class liberal.With him at the head of a limited monarchy would be a free republic.

Metternich sat watching the French riots with a kind of trepidation. If he had the courage, he would definitely suppress this relatively mild revolution.But British help was uncertain, and France itself was still a great power.There was nothing he could do about it.

Belgian independence The Belgian people, irrationally handed over to the Netherlands by the Vienna Conference, finally stood up against the Netherlands, encouraged by the success of the French Revolution.Britain and France did not allow the kings of Eastern Europe to come to the aid of the Dutch king, the uprising was successful, and Belgium became an independent kingdom with an elected parliament and a free constitution.

The fires of rebel revolutions in Italy and Poland were still raging.The people of several German states advocated constitutions, and obtained them.There were several rebellions in Italy.The Polish army, originally used by the Russian tsar against French and Belgian liberals, suddenly turned into a revolutionary army, turned against the tsar and fighting for Polish independence.

In the revolutionary movements in Italy, Germany, and Poland, the revolutionaries had to fight against a well-guarded and powerful enemy.Metternich's troops quickly crushed uprisings across Italy.Russian troops restored the Tsar to rule in Russian Poland, and the constitution issued to the Poles by Alexander I was annulled.In the German Confederation, liberalism faced an enemy so overwhelmingly superior that it had no chance of victory.

Despotism in Eastern Europe Not long after the revolutions broke out in various parts of 1830, the three conservative monarchs of Eastern Europe, the rulers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, signed a secret alliance to prevent the outbreak of revolution again.When people today speak of a holy alliance that hinders progress and destroys liberty, it is this alliance that is in mind. The purpose of the Holy League of 1815 was different from this, and the members who joined were also less exclusive.

So, the eastern half of Europe remained as conservative as Metternich had hoped, but the western parts of Britain, France and Belgium were split off.

1848. The Revolution of [-]

A series of revolutions followed in 1848.Metternich and his friends remained in control of Germany, Italy and Eastern Europe during the troubled years of 1820-1830.However, until 1848, the situation changed.Those still nostalgic for the French Revolution found new inspiration in the liberalism of Britain, which made remarkable innovations in 1832 and after.Peasants and serfs wanted to seize the estates of noble landowners; many workers in factories expressed dissatisfaction with the status quo.

The Industrial Revolution increased middle-class nationalism and liberalism, but it also sparked strong discontent among urban workers.In addition, the construction of railways after 1830 made it possible for the revolution to spread widely, because news traveled on the railways faster than stagecoaches or people on horseback.

In 1834, 18 German states formed a customs union, which involved tolls or customs duties.A large number of goods can be freely traded between the Allies, which is consistent with the Industrial Revolution and the anti-mercantilism movement.Later the customs union gradually extended to all German-speaking places except Austria.It is not only beneficial to the development of commerce and industry, but also leads the nations towards political unity.

The revolution of February 1848, like that of 1830, was led by France. In February 1848, Louis-Philippe, who had become narrow-minded and obstinate, was struck down.Now the power of the working class has grown.Louis-Philippe leaned towards the bourgeoisie, but this was not enough.Like Charles X, he fled to England.The revolutionaries instituted a democratic constitution and installed a new government.This uprising became known as the "February Revolution", just as the 2 uprising was known as the "July Revolution". The new government of 1830 became the Second French Republic.

The good news of the "February Revolution" spread abroad, and in every Italian country, in the German states, and in Austria itself, many revolutionaries seized the opportunity to rise up and fight for freedom.

Metternich's flight When Metternich heard that the revolution dared to rise up in his own city Vienna, he said forcefully: "I have been loyal to my country for 40 years. I have never succumbed to any turmoil. Now the I can't give in any more." He was surprisingly ignorant of liberalism, nationalism, and labor restlessness about acquired power since 1830. On March 1848, 3, this well-mannered, white-haired old gentleman actually forgot the arrogant boast he had promised a few days earlier, disguised himself as an Englishman and fled, leaving Vienna in the wave of revolution.

Revolution and relapse The Austrians had a liberal constitution, but after a year or two the new Emperor Franz Joseph, with the help of the Russian Tsar and some conservatives, imposed an absolutism on Austria and its dependent states the head of the government.He did abolish serfdom as well as feudalism.The king of Prussia finally bowed to the people and promised them a constitution, but the constitution that was finally completed was very undemocratic.German nationalism seemed to be on the brink of success in the Frankfurt Parliament.This parliament is composed of representatives elected by many German states, and its purpose is to provide a democratic and unified government for the whole of Germany.It is a group worth watching, full of promise, but in the end it failed.Its failure delayed German national unity by almost 25 years and democracy by nearly 70 years.The main reason for the defeat was the rivalry between Austria and Prussia.

All in all, the revolution of 1848-1849 never achieved the goal of national unity and democratic politics.Disappointed and disgusted, many liberal leaders in Germany and Austria immigrated to other countries, especially to the United States, where some became good and influential people.

(End of this chapter)