A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 32 Reforms in England

England was the first country to overthrow an autocratic system, but it was also one of the last countries to establish a democratic system.As mentioned above, the absolutism was overthrown by several revolutions in the seventeenth century.Next, we will talk about the democratic system established by various reforms in the 17th century.

[-]. The reform of the middle class
The need for reform Britain is in many ways a champion of liberalism and the best example of a constitutional monarchy in Western Europe.But until 1832 or later, the British government was more aristocratic than democratic.It was controlled by the wealthier classes, especially the old landowner families.Neither the urban capitalists nor the working class have fair and reasonable representation in parliament.A large part of the people still does not have the right to vote.

Undemocratic Parliament We all know that the British Parliament is composed of two groups or upper and lower houses, namely the House of Lords and the House of Commons.The former is composed of some nobles (nobles with titles) and a small number of bishops.The bishop is nominated by the government, but the nobility is hereditary, that is, the father passes the title to the son.Therefore, in the House of Lords, civilians not only have no right to speak, but also have no right to vote.

Members of the House of Commons are elected through elections, but the electoral system is narrow and unfair.The Industrial Revolution produced an intolerable situation, such as some old municipalities (constituencies) that had become "villages" but still had representatives in parliament, while many newer and larger towns had no representatives at all.

Old Constituencies and New Towns Each of the old boroughs was represented in the House of Commons, a privilege which the new industrial cities did not have.

A borough is an old town to which the king or queen has formerly conferred the special power of sending two representatives to the House of Commons.Regardless of the size or population of each county or municipality, two representatives are still selected.

But as far as we know, some constituencies have decayed to the point where they have very few residents or are completely empty.Such constituencies were called "decay constituencies", and their representatives were in fact appointed by wealthy nobles.

On the other hand, many industrial cities such as Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds and Sheffield do not have a representative because they are not constituencies.All this means is that not only poorer people have no right to interfere in politics, but even urban capitalists have no political rights.They're thinking it's time for a change.

The Demand for Reform In 1831-1832 the desire for reform had grown quite strong. The French Revolution of 1830 brought courage to the British bourgeoisie (capitalists and some middle classes).The capitalists threatened to cause a financial panic and stop paying taxes.Many urban factories held grand public meetings.The working class was outraged.The whole of Britain seemed to be on the eve of a violent revolution. In 1832, Parliament passed an important reform bill over the objections of the Conservative aristocrats in the House of Lords.

改革法案 1832年出台的改革法案做出了三项重大的改变：（1）以前“衰败选区”在下院中的席位被全部取消，并将这些席位提供给未被准许委派代表参加议会的新兴大城市；（2）增加一些代表席位给人口多的郡；（3）选举权被推广到拥有一定数额财产或是缴税达到一定数额的人。因为这项改革，享有选举权的人大概增加了22万人。换个方式说，就是从43.5万人增加到了65.6万人。

Oligarchy, not democracy but 65.6 voters represent only about one-ninth of all adult males in the UK.The agricultural workers in the country, the urban workers, and the middle class in every city still do not enjoy the right to elect members of parliament.

The significance of the great reform bill introduced in 1832 was that the aristocratic and landowner oligarchy ruling group that had controlled the government for a long time had to give up the right to speak in parliament and the right to participate in politics to the industrial bourgeoisie.Britain is still an oligarchic country, but now, in addition to hereditary nobles and landlords and gentlemen, the oligarchic group also includes some bourgeois capitalists.

Chartists Naturally, the populace was very disappointed by the Reform Act of 1832.They feel ignored and cheated.It wasn't long before a workers' organization drafted a petition calling for a real democracy, that is, the right to vote for everyone, rich or poor. They submitted this petition to Parliament in 1839, but it was rejected.But they will continue to work hard.Because they called the petition "The People's Charter," they were called "Chartists."

In 1848, the Chartists again planned a massive demonstration, delivering a new petition with 500 million signatures.At this point, a revolution would have been possible had it not been for the tens of thousands of police and soldiers who were there to nip every unrest in the bud.As a result, the Chartist petition was not only ridiculed, it was once again rejected.

The triumph of middle-class liberalism comes as the British working class pleads for suffrage in vain, while bourgeois capitalists enjoy the fruits of the Reform Act of 1832.They feel that the most urgent thing is to abolish the old protective tariffs and the old mercantilist policy of restricting industry and commerce.In Parliament, however, they were not as numerous as the landed aristocracy, who favored protective tariffs, and especially the Corn Laws.The Corn Laws imposed tariffs on British imports of grain (wheat, barley, and oats), thereby allowing English landowners to command higher prices for the grain produced.Of course, high prices for grain meant high prices for bread.A bad harvest in Britain would make matters worse.

The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845 was a year of great regret.Millions of people died of starvation in Ireland.In England, hunger invaded the cities.Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel, urged by the trade faction and driven by the famine, proposed in 1846 to reduce the corn tax immediately and abolish it within three years.Despite the strong opposition of the landlords, the motion was finally passed.

In the years that followed, the rest of the tariffs met the same fate as the Corn Laws.Until 1860, Britain had embarked on the road of free trade steadily and healthily.

External attention Long before Britain opened its ports to free trade, it saw the benefits to its own commerce of other countries opening their ports.This fact helps us understand why, as early as 1820, Britain began to inspire revolutions in Latin America and around the world.It wants each revolutionary government to remove many of the previous restrictions on trade.Therefore, it can be said that the British free trade faction has achieved the success of free trade advocacy abroad before achieving its own goals.

[-]. The Gradual Adoption of Political Democracy
Under the long reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), liberalism developed greatly in Britain.This is mostly because the queen pays attention to expressing the requirements of the times through parliament.She probably had no desire to be a despot, and if she did she was almost certain to fail.On at least two occasions during her reign, in 1867 and 1884, political democracy developed significantly.

Political parties The two major political parties during Victoria's reign were the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party.The Conservative Party replaced the previous Tory Party, mainly including squires and landowners; the Liberal Party replaced the previous Whig Party, mostly urban merchants.At times one party had a majority in Parliament; at other times another party had a majority; but between 1832 and 1867 the Liberal Party had a majority and controlled the government most of the time.Naturally, the cabinet is formed by the leaders of the majority party.

Gladstone and Disraeli Before 1867, the two main statesmen were William E. Gladstone (1809-1898) and Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881).During the first few years their political affiliation was uncertain, Gladstone became a Liberal and Disraeli a Conservative.Obviously, they are hostile.

Popular Demands Neither Disraeli nor Gladstone would have taken the lead in extending suffrage to them if many of the working class had not advocated for the suffrage.The workers in the cities had advocated political democracy from 1832 to 1848, in the form of Chartism.After their defeat in 1848, they formed many labor unions and led many successful "strikes" to realize their desire for higher wages, reduced working hours, and improved working conditions.

John Bright and the Radicals Towards 1867, union members found an able friend and ally in John Bright (1811-1889), a prosperous manufacturer and powerful speecher.He had become popular with the people for having formed the Anti-Corn Law League and for helping to establish free trade.Not only did he hate the landowners and nobles, but he didn't believe in the House of Lords.During the American Civil War (1861-1865), Disraeli and Gladstone both sided with the South, while Bright sympathized with the North, and he strongly advocated that Britain should have a democratic government.

Bright has many followers among working-class and middle-class extremists known as "radicals".These "radicals" could not work together with Disraeli and the Conservatives, whereas Bright and his friends not only could and did work with Gladstone and the Liberals.He had a big win with them.

The Reform Act of 1867 In 1866, Bright urged Gladstone to propose extending the suffrage to a small portion of the working class, but the proposal failed.Then, in 1867, Disraeli put forward a bill, far from democratic in spirit, but carefully revised by Bright's Radicals and Gladstone's Liberals, and finally advocated the granting of the suffrage to almost All town workers.

Disraeli adopted these revisions unexpectedly.The bill passed and became the Reform Act of 1867.Disraeli generally saw the characteristics of the times. Seeing such a bill, he felt that it would be passed sooner or later, so he seized this opportunity to seize the "thunderbolt" of his opponent and help himself and his party gain credibility.

The Reform Act of 1867 granted the vote to a million urban workers, nearly doubling the electorate in Britain.But it did not bring true political democracy.The House of Lords still retains its old aristocratic privileges, while millions of country laborers remain unenfranchised.

Reform Act 1884 The first result of the Reform Act 1867 was to strengthen the Liberal Party.Under the influence of Bright, the new voters liked Gladstone but not Disraeli.Bright also strengthened Gladstone's faith in democracy, prompting him to support further political reform. In 1872, under the leadership of Gladstone, a secret ballot was implemented. In 1884, still with his approval, the suffrage was extended to 200 million agricultural workers.

Oddly enough, the Reform Acts of 1884-1885 also gained votes for the Conservative Party, as country laborers were more influenced by conservative landowners and aristocrats than by Gladstone and urban liberals.The result was that from 1886 to 1906, except for a brief period, the Conservative Party (or the Coalition Party as it is now called) was in power.

New parties and a new regime In 1901, British workers established the Labor Party.They advocated social reform and political democracy.They elected several party members to parliament and urged the Liberals to secure some of their demands. In 1911, the Liberal Party and the Labor Party led by Lloyd George passed the famous "Parliament Act", which greatly reduced the privileges of the nobility and enhanced the power of the House of Commons. In 1918 the franchise was extended to nearly all men and many women who had not yet been voted. In 1928, the rest of the women also gained the right to vote.

So after 1832, and especially between 1867 and 1928, Britain gradually adopted political democracy.Class government was abolished and replaced by "government of the masses".

[-]. Democratic social reform
After 1867, the main problems in British society were land and labor problems.

The Agrarian Question The agrarian question arose because England had never experienced a revolution like France.Conversely, just as the large estates of the French nobility were divided into small farms and handed over to the peasants, the English nobility bribed their tenants to give up their land in order to increase their estates.It is estimated that in 1875, four-sevenths of the entire country's land belonged to less than 4000 British people, of which the British aristocrats (about 2200 people) occupied almost half of the land in England and Wales, and the land in Scotland and Ireland. The area is even larger.

Consequences of Monopoly The monopoly of British land by the nobility produced four major results: (1) a reduction in the number of rural populations; (2) a consequent reduction in the status of wage laborers who remained on large estates; (3) a reduction in agricultural output; 4) The increase in the wealth of the British aristocracy and the maintenance of social advantages.

Demands for Land Reform In Ireland, peasants fought heroically against the monopoly of the English aristocracy on their lands and achieved major victories.As a result, around 1910, Ireland passed a series of laws, somewhat similar to France, and became a country mainly of small farms and yeoman farmers.This will be discussed further below.

In Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) little progress was made until 1914 in resolving serious land problems. In 1907, mainly through the efforts of Lloyd George, the Liberal Party passed a bill under which a small number of British farm workers could buy themselves a small farm.World War I brought the government's land reform program to a halt, but it indirectly reduced the power of the landlord class to a large extent, as heavy wartime taxes made the nobles divide their estates and sell them off part.

Labor Issues There is another serious social issue that is more important than the issue of land reform, that is, the issue of labor and capital.It is important to remember that Britain was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution and was a world leader in commerce and industry in the 19th century.Its shipbuilding ranks first in the world; it owns more looms and spindles; it is one of the four major producers of steel; and it is second only to the United States in coal mining.Because industry was so important to British economic life, merchants and workers were quite influential in British politics.

Businessmen Many businessmen are affiliated with the Liberal Party.They are generally in favor of freedom and unrestrained, or free competition in business.We know that free trade was established before 1867 and continued until World War I in 1914.Even before 1914, some important businessmen and politicians, such as Joseph Chamberlain, joined the Conservative Party members in opposing free trade.After the war, the number of people who advocated protective tariffs increased.

Labor and unions Meanwhile, workers are fighting for higher wages, shorter hours and a greater voice in politics. The suffrage won in 1867 did not satisfy them.In the struggle for higher wages and reduced hours, unions are more valuable than suffrage.Workers discover that unity is strength.The right to form trade unions was not fully recognized by law until 1871, and the right to strike was not recognized by law until 1875.These unions have had a lot of success since; wages have continued to rise and hours have been shortened. The Labor Party was formed in 1901 to represent trade union interests in Parliament.Labor becomes a political force.

Social Legislation continued to roll over time, and both major parties began to pursue working-class votes.Especially after the establishment of the Labor Party, the Liberal Party, led by Lloyd George, advocated the passage of many laws to help workers and their families.Employers are obliged to compensate workers for losses suffered as a result of their work.The state is preparing to issue pensions to the elderly.Union funds are protected.The lives of babies and children are guaranteed.Housing conditions have also improved.The main burden of taxation has shifted from the laborers to the wealthier classes.In short, Britain has become a democracy, using political democracy not only to increase the welfare of the upper class, but also to improve the treatment of the working class.

[-]. The Irish Problem
There are many untouchable "pains" in the British Empire, and there is a very painful place near the heart of the empire, which is Ireland.

The Irish Nationality The Irish and the British are two very different peoples.In the Middle Ages, they were independent and free, with their own language and culture.In modern times, although they belong to the United Kingdom and speak English, most people are still loyal to the Catholic Church and retain their national traditions.

British oppression In the 17th and 18th centuries, the British government went to great lengths to stamp out Irish nationalism.It wrecked Irish commerce and most industries.It plundered the farms of Irish peasants and turned them into impoverished laborers and tenants on English noble estates.It took all the wealth of the Catholic Church of Ireland, and put it into the hands of the Church of Ireland, the sister of the Anglican Church.Although the Irish were Catholic, they were taxed to support the Protestant church.The culmination of these initiatives was the emigration of a large number of English and Scots to Ireland in the 17th century, especially the northeastern province of Ulster.They were all Protestants and belonged to the privileged class.They have monopolized the official positions in Ireland for a long time and are in charge of the wealth of Ireland.

Unhappy Union Until 1800, Ireland had a parliament of its own in Dublin, but Catholics were not allowed to hold seats.Britain abolished the Dublin Assembly in 1800, and since then all laws in Ireland have been made by the British Parliament in London.Some Irish MPs in the British Parliament are not Catholic.The Irish were not happy in this union, and through active encouragement (sometimes peacefully, sometimes violently), they managed to force some concessions and reforms from the London Parliament.

Irish Gains For example, in 1829, Irish Catholics (and British Catholics) gained the right to participate in Parliament.This harvest should be attributed to the long and persistent work of Daniel O'Connell. In 1848 the Young Irish Party revolted. In 1867, the Finneys also broke out in a revolution.The uprising did not gain independence, but it terrified the British so much that Gladstone's Liberal government had to abolish the Irish Church's burden in 1869, which meant that the Irish nation was exempted from paying taxes to the Irish Protestant Church fee.

The nationalist movement was developed in Ireland from 1874 to 1914, first under the leadership of Charles Parnell and then under the leadership of John Redmond.Its purpose was to achieve land reform as well as self-government.

Self-government "Self-government" means that Ireland becomes independent and self-governing, again having its own Parliament.In his later years, Gladstone and some capable Liberals did their best for Irish self-government. Two Home Rule Acts were introduced in 1886 and 1893, but both failed.Finally, in 1914, a third bill was passed, but met with strong opposition.The main opponents were the Conservatives (United Party) in the UK and the Orange Party in Ireland.The Orangemen were Protestants in Ulster.They threatened civil war if the Home Rule Act was implemented.At this time, the First World War broke out, and this matter was temporarily put on hold.The next chapter will tell.

Land reform Land reform was relatively successful.During the period when self-government was encouraged, it was mainly the Conservatives who pushed through the Land Act, turning Ireland into a very common small country of yeomanry (like France).Sir Horace Pronkett promoted the cooperative movement, which improved Irish agriculture and the economics of many Irish yeomen.

(End of this chapter)