A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 37 The French Third Republic
In the French February Revolution of 1848, King Louis-Philippe was expelled and the Second Republic was established.But in the second half of 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte changed the Second Republic into the Second Empire.The empire lasted from 1870 to 1871, which coincided with a disastrous war with Germany.The Third Republic, which rose from the ashes, fell by 1940.

[-]. From the Second Republic to the Second Empire
The February Revolution was accomplished jointly by the working class and the bourgeoisie in Paris.The workers, led by the socialist Louis Blanc, advocated a socialist republic and insisted that the government do for them what the First Republic had done for the peasants, that is, make them their Master of factories and shops.But the Parisian bourgeoisie insisted that the government should only be politically democratic and should not be concerned with radical social experiments.

The voice of France At that time the whole country elected a parliament by universal suffrage of grown men to draw up a constitution for the republic.The voice of France is not the same as the voice of Paris.The peasants and the bourgeoisie in every province expressed their opposition to the claims of the Parisian workers.So the Assembly prevented the workers' uprising and drafted a republican constitution.It expressly provides for the establishment of a Legislative Corps and a President, both subject to universal suffrage among grown men.In the elections held in December 1848, many voters elected Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, as president.

Louis Napoleon spent most of his life in exile.He often used intrigue and intrigue, tried to honor his ancestors, and spread the view that the Bonaparte family was supporters of democracy and friends of oppressed nations.His name is very magical.Most French voted for him simply because his surname was Napoleon.

The magical name Louis Napoleon was recalled from exile in 1848 to serve as President of the Second French Republic.He cleverly used his name and new position to enhance his reputation.The army supported him because he represented the military tradition of his warlike uncle.The peasantry and the bourgeoisie supported him because he pretended to protect "law and order" and advocated economic prosperity.Workers (even disgruntled workers) embraced him because he used a lot of rhetoric to assure them that he was their friend.The clergy supported him because he supported religious education and sent troops to Rome to restore the pope.

Therefore, when the Legislative Corps demanded that the Constitution be amended to abolish universal male suffrage, the President stood up as a loyal defender of democracy.He seemed to have France in his hands, he came to believe it, and had reason to believe it.

The President's "Coup d'état" Louis Napoleon, on the strength of his reputation, the loyalty of the army, and following the example of his uncle, staged a "coup d'état" on December 1851, 12.The leaders of the republicans were imprisoned or exiled; the Legislative Corps was dissolved; a new constitution was promulgated.The constitution was put to a vote, and it was passed with a majority overwhelming.

Louis Napoleon's confidence that he had France in his hands proved right.

From President to Emperor for almost 20 years thereafter, Louis Napoleon was de facto despot of France.At first he bore the title of president, but in November 1852 he was authorized by a referendum (vote of all grown men in France) to assume the title of emperor.Thereafter he became "Emperor of the French, Napoleon III".

Just as the First French Republic was replaced by the Empire of Napoleon I in 1804, so the Second Republic became the Second Empire, the Empire of Napoleon III, in 1852.

Louis Napoleon saw himself as the third emperor because he intended to recognize the son of Napoleon I as the legitimate ruler of France.Son of Napoleon I died in 1832.

[-]. The Reign of Napoleon III

Although Napoleon III was not great, he was very cunning.He based his authority on the principle of the sovereignty of the people, a principle which France has never abandoned since then.In addition, he preserved the form of universal male suffrage established by the Revolution of 1848; France has adhered to this form of democracy ever since.

The emperor is in power, but in France, democracy and personal freedom are controlled by Napoleon III.As the French people soon discovered, universal male suffrage by itself does not make a country truly democratic.Under Napoleon's 1852 constitution, universal male suffrage was used in referendums only when the emperor courted the electorate and when electing the Legislative Corps.All elections were cunningly arranged by the emperor through his administrators in each locality.These administrators paid fees to candidates who helped the emperor, counted votes, and wrote election reports.In addition, the Legislative Council had no power other than to pass laws proposed by the Emperor.

The "democratic" tyrant's democratic form was nothing but a cloak for Napoleon III's personal despotism.He has the power to cease and declare war, to appoint all officials, and to determine public policy.He curbs rebellion against his newspapers.He sent those who attacked him into exile or imprisonment.Although the French people enjoyed full sovereignty in theory, in practice individual liberties were far less than under the reign of the restored Bourbon dynasty between 1814 and 1848.

Domestic Policy Napoleon III, when dealing with domestic and foreign affairs, intended to follow the example of Napoleon I he imagined.In domestic affairs his aim was to reconcile all classes.

(1) He increased the commercial interests of the bourgeoisie and the peasantry, created a savings bank system, and made it easier to form trading companies.He gradually adopted a policy of free trade and aided manufacturing as well as commerce with general public works.Ports were improved, swamps were drained, canals were opened, roads were repaired, and many railroads were built.The city of Paris was improved and beautified.France also hosts a large international exposition (Exposition des Nations).

(2) He helped the working class by legalizing cooperatives, abolishing anti-union and strike laws, and supervising private companies that covered worker death and work-related injury insurance.He liked to be called the "Emperor of the Workers".

(3) He gave the priests new rights to control education, stationed troops in Rome to protect the Pope, and supported the church's foreign missions to gain the favor of the priests.His wife, the Empress Eugenie, was sincerely attached to the Church, and because of her generosity she was regarded as the protector of the clergy and the friend of the poor.

Foreign Policy In foreign affairs, Napoleon III was bent on undoing the consequences of the Congress of Vienna.In his mind, the defeat of Napoleon I and the disgrace of France were decided by that parliament.He, Napoleon III, wanted to restore France to the glory and prestige it had enjoyed in Europe before 1815.He wanted to restore its "natural frontiers"; he wanted to help "oppressed nations"; and he wanted to re-establish a French colonial empire.

All these things, if possible, he could have done peacefully, because he was not a great soldier like his uncle.But he also knew that war could realize his ambitions abroad and strengthen his prestige at home.Napoleon I was honored in war, and he probably will be as well.

Alliance with Britain Napoleon III firmly believed that the main reason for his uncle's overthrow was British hatred. If he wanted to eliminate the consequences of the Vienna Parliament, he must have the support of Britain.With this in mind, he united with Great Britain in the Crimean War in 1854.

Hostility to Russia In the Crimean War, Britain fought against Russia.The British feared that Russia would rule Turkey and take control of Constantinople.Napoleon III joined the war with Britain, pretending to protect Catholics in Turkey against the Orthodox Church protected by Russia.Most of the war was fought on the Crimean peninsula in southern Russia.France and England were victorious.Napoleon found satisfaction in presiding over the Peace Conference in Paris in 1856.Therefore, the relationship between Britain and France has become closer.

Savoy and Nice We already know how Napoleon III helped Sardinia rebel against Austria in 1859.He did not do as much as he promised, but he did get paid - Savoy Park and Nice City.In this way, the consequences of the Viennese Parliament in Italy were completely eliminated.

Facing the Rhine Napoleon III also wanted to help France restore its "natural frontier" on its northeastern frontier.He expressed sympathy for the Germans' desire for national unity. If Prussia agreed to use the territory of the Rhine near France as a reward, he would be willing to help Prussia unify Germany. In 1866, he proposed to join Prussia in declaring war on Austria, but Bismarck believed that Prussia was strong enough to not need him at all.So Napoleon III asked Bismarck for "reward" on the grounds of not helping Austria.But Bismarck resolutely rejected him.In the end he did not acquire an inch of land along the Rhine.

Napoleon III's colonial policy At the same time, Napoleon III did his best to re-establish a French colonial empire.He conquered Algeria in North Africa and got some islands in the Pacific Ocean, especially New Caledonia.He waged a short war against China and also secured valuable trade privileges for France in the Far East.He gained a foothold in Southeast Asia and also laid the foundations for French India.

One of the most daring overseas projects of France in Mexico was carried out in 1862 by Napoleon III.At that time he sent a French army to Mexico to support an Austrian prince, Maximilian, as the emperor of Mexico.His plan, of course, was for Maximilian to rule Mexico in favor of France.However, the plan was a disastrous failure.Mexicans rose up and rebelled; America protested. In 1867 Napoleon withdrew his army from Mexico, and the Mexicans killed Maximilian.

Turn of Tide As long as Louie looked victorious, he was flattered.But foreigners always hated him or were afraid of him.The reason the Russians hated him was that he fought against them in the Crimean War.The reason the Austrians didn't like him was that he drove them out of Milan in 1859.The reason why the Italians lost their enthusiasm for him was that he took Savoy and Nice from them, but did not continue to fight Austria.The Germans feared his plans for the Rhine.Americans resented his intervention in Mexico.The English came to see him as an unprincipled and dangerous despot.Until 1867 he had no reliable friends outside of France.

Napoleon III was losing his prestige at home at the same time as the French revolt was growing.Devoted Catholics revolted against his policies in Italy.Frenchmen of all classes were humiliated by his embarrassing defeat in Mexico and his inability to deal with Bismarck.And his suppression of personal freedom has also been hated.

Slow reforms Napoleon III, alarmed by growing opposition from Republicans and liberal royalists, endorsed in 1869 an amendment to the 1852 constitution.He agreed that the emperor should no longer control elections, that the press should be free, and that government ministers should be accountable to the legislature rather than to the emperor.The revised constitution, although not to everyone's satisfaction, was approved by referendum in May 1870.

War against Prussia The Spanish throne was vacant in 1870, and Bismarck advised a prince of the Hohenzollern family to serve as an alternate.This led to a protest from Napoleon III and a hasty reply from Bismarck. In July, Napoleon rolled his deadly dice, and he declared war on Prussia.This is exactly what Bismarck expected.

Napoleon III assembled the French army and marched towards Metz and Strasbourg.Metz and Strasbourg are two natural gateways to Germany from France.But Napoleon overlooked one thing, the door often opens in the wrong direction!He also greatly underestimated the Prussian army. "War Makers" and "War Winners" are waiting for this day, and they are all ready.

[-]. Seduction and Surrender
Before Napoleon knew it, three Prussian armies had reached France.To his great horror, the southern German states immediately joined Prussia because they believed that Prussia was being attacked maliciously.All Germany, except Austria, was armed against France, who had no allies.

FATAL DAY We already know the outcome of this war.It exposed the corrupt nature of Napoleon III's empire.Although the French soldiers displayed their usual courage and vigor, they had no good leader and were hopelessly outnumbered.They lack organization, planning, and supply.They fought one defeat after another, and on September 1870, 9, the main force of France, under Napoleon III and MacMahon, was surrounded at Sedan, defeated and forced to surrender.

Two days after the new government, on September 9, when Paris finally learned that the Kaiser had been captured by the Germans, a self-proclaimed group of republicans rallied at the town hall.They announced the ousting of the Bonaparte family and the establishment of the Third Republic.Until peace was restored and a permanent constitution was enacted, this self-recommended group held absolute power.They themselves created a makeshift "government of defense".

One of the most outstanding members of the "Government of Defence" was the young lawyer Léon Campetta, who was an extraordinary man.His fervent patriotism, devotion to free government, and high-spirited eloquence all combined with his gift for organization.When the Germans invaded France and besieged Paris, Gambetta became an important figure in defense and national patriotism.He escaped Paris in a balloon, rousing the nation to a new effort.He let the desperate war drag on for as long as five months, and he showed his greatest talent and skill as he led recruit after recruit against the well-trained Germans.It was Gambetta who did not make the French disaster a disgrace.

Peace and Punishment Despite Gambetta's unremitting efforts, Paris was still starving and was forced to surrender in early 1871.The National Assembly met in Versailles and accepted the humiliating treaty imposed by the Germans.France was forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine, including the cities of Metz and Strasbourg, to the newly formed German Empire and pay 50 billion francs ($10 billion) war reparations.

[-]. Birth of the Third Republic

Immediately after the overthrow of Napoleon III and the capture of Paris, a National Assembly was elected whose task it was to make peace with the Germans and to decide what form of government should be established in France.We recall that a republic had been proclaimed in Paris in September 1870, and that the majority of the people of Paris looked forward to the National Assembly drawing up a constitution for the republic.However, the majority of the peasantry in the country had chosen as their representatives the Liberal Royalists, who made up the majority of the National Assembly.They had no intention of making France a permanent republic.

Paris Commune Meanwhile, Republicans in Paris joined with socialists to form their own revolutionary government, the so-called Paris Commune, to rival the National Assembly at Versailles.The National Assembly then recalled the National Army to attack Paris.After two months of confrontation, the Paris Commune was crushed and the authority of the National Assembly was recognized throughout France.Tens of thousands of Parisian workers were brutally murdered by troops maintaining "order and security."The working class was terrorized, the peasantry and the bourgeoisie won.Paris is not so scary anymore.

Royalists without a King Since the Royalists had a majority in the National Assembly and the Paris of the Republicans was intimidated, it stands to reason that the French Third Republic was very short-lived.What really saved it was the rift among the Royalists.Liberal royalists were not united in their choice of king, and after several years of debate and delay, they united with the Republicans to create a constitution for the Third Republic in 1875.

Adolphe Thiers has mentioned above how a young man, Léon Gambetta, actively continued to resist the Germans after the surrender of the emperor.Nor should we forget Adolphe Thiers, an elderly man who helped found and keep the Third Republic on its feet.

Thiers was 1871 years old in 74.He experienced two revolutions in 1830 and 1848, and was briefly exiled by Napoleon III.He spent most of his life resisting the government, but from 1870 to 1875 he helped form another government.He was a liberal royalist, but he put his party differences aside in order to serve France.From 1871 to 1875, Thiers was the first president of the Third Republic. Although he was voted out of office by the royalists because of his freedom, his work was finally praised. .

Nature of the Third Republic Supreme power vested in a bicameral parliament, a Senate indirectly elected and a House of Representatives elected by universal male suffrage.The Cabinet, which is accountable to Parliament, is responsible for the judiciary and appoints all officials.The head of state is a president elected by parliament for a seven-year term and fulfilling many honorary and ceremonial duties, just like the British king.

In 1880, the seat of the government was moved from Versailles to Paris, and July 7, when the Bastille was captured, was declared a National Day.Since then, the Third Republic has become more "republican", and the number of royalists has gradually decreased. The revolutionary principles of 14 finally succeeded.Democracy is not only recognized in theory, but also effective in practice.Freedom of assembly, freedom of the press and general freedom of association are protected by law.

V. Continuation of the Third Republic

作为法国政府的第三共和国持续了接近70年（1870—1940）。它的巨大力量和顽强的生命力在两场严酷的考验中表现得极为突出：（1）在1871年至1873年期间，它支出了德国人所强加的10亿美元的巨额赔款，让德国占领军自法国撤走了；（2）它承受住了1914年—1918年第一次世界大战的煎熬。

Domestic Results The government built many public factories, built new roads, canals, and railways, expanded ports, and improved wasteland.A specialized Ministry of Agriculture was established, and many financial subsidies were provided to encourage the production of major French products such as grain, wine, and silk.Farmers were also allowed to form buying and marketing cooperatives and mutual credit banks to help farmers.

To protect farmers and manufacturers against foreign competition, France abandoned its free trade policy and created a tariff system during the Third Republic.Between 1870 and 1914, the value of national agricultural output nearly doubled, while the number of factory machines tripled.

Labor issues With the continuous development of French industry, the number of working class has increased, but the Third Republic is more inclined to the bourgeoisie and peasants.Some labor laws have been formulated, such as limiting working hours, banning child labor, employers must compensate employees for work-related accidents, and provide pension insurance.

But the working class was not satisfied with this and gradually leaned towards socialism.It has come to depend not on the government, but on strikes and some trade union activity to raise wages, reduce working hours and improve general working conditions.

Nationalism and militarism During the Third Republic, national patriotism remained as passionate a passion for many French people as it had been since the Revolution of 1789.France suffered defeats at war with Germany in 1870-1871, which strengthened French patriotism.From 1871 to 1914, people expected and believed that France would one day retaliate against Germany and recover the lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine.In preparation for revenge, the French army was completely reorganized in the early days of the Third Republic, compulsory military service was implemented, and a lot of money was spent on fortifications and military supplies.

National Education For the same reason, public schools were created and primary education was also compulsory.In France, during the "terrible two years" of 1870-1871, it was believed that "it was the master who won at Sedan."The French then attempted to make progress from the ordeal offered by their conquerors.The national schools and the national army contributed considerably to the rapid development of patriotism among the generation of Frenchmen who developed between 1871 and 1914.

Foreign Policy The foreign policy of the Third Republic arose primarily from national hatred of Germany.Every powerful country that rebelled against Germany became a friend of France.When the rift between Germany and Russia arose around 1890, the democrats of the Third Republic quickly forged a close alliance with the autocratic tsar; Its erstwhile commercial and colonial enemies had reached an amicable agreement.

The success of colonialism The Third Republic was more successful than either Napoleon I or Napoleon III in reorganizing the colonial empire.In Asia, French Indochina expanded.In the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, some islands including Madagascar were obtained.In Africa, French rule continued to expand southward from Algeria, across the dry Sahara and rich Sudan, as far as the Atlantic Ocean and the Congo River, and established protectorates in Tunisia and Morocco.Until 1914, France became a colonial empire second only to the British Empire in size and population.

The Dangers of the Third Republic For many years the Third Republic had faced two dangers within itself, the revival of the Royalist Party and the military despotism.As we have seen, the Royalists lost control of the Republic, but they still hoped to overthrow it, with the aim of restoring the House of Bourbon.They were supported mainly by priests and noble families.

Conflict with the Church The more the clergy and some ardent Catholics rebelled against the Republic, the more violently the government turned against the Church. In 1892, the Pope urged French Catholics to abandon their expectations of the monarchy and to support the republic loyally, but only a small number of people heeded his advice.

In the early 20th century, the government passed some very harsh laws, mainly against Royalists.Catholic monks and monks were expelled from France.Catholic schools were fettered; church property was confiscated; state sponsorship of the church was withdrawn.The danger of revival of the Royalists diminished, but religious liberty suffered serious injury.

Fear of Military Despotism The supporters of the Republic feared not only that the influence of the church would restore the Bourbon dynasty, but also that the influence of the military would lead to a military despotism.They recalled how Napoleon Bonaparte had brought down the First Republic with the help of armies, and how Louis Napoleon had dealt a fatal blow to the Second Republic.However, they desperately want to have a strong army to fight against Germany when war breaks out.But at the same time they were worried about their own army.

General Boulanger In the history of the development of the Third Republic, there were two political events that almost brought the Republic to dictatorship.The first time, in the 19s, was a general named Boulanger who boasted so rousingly about how he would fight the Germans that many patriots, especially the Royalists, hailed him as a A hero of the times.However, Boulanger did not have the guts to attempt a coup.Supporters of the Republic united against him.He was later charged with treason and fled.

The second Dreyfus case was in the 19s, when Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, was sentenced for selling military secrets to Germany.Some officers banded together to keep him from getting a fair sentence, and prominent Republicans defended Dreyfus, insisting that he had not received a fair sentence.Those extreme patriots, especially the royalists, criticized them for covering up a Jew and corrupting military discipline.This incident was very shocking. If a popular military commander had the courage to launch a coup at that time, it was very likely that he would win.But in the end the Republicans united with the Socialists; Dreyfus was acquitted and popular sentiment shifted in his favour.Officers in the army who did illegal things were demoted or dismissed.

The republicanization of the military After the Boulanger episode and the Dreyfus case, the government always appointed loyal Republicans to top military posts.During the First World War from 1914 to 1918, there was no danger of a military dictatorship, which is the best proof of the loyalty of many French people to the Third Republic.

Church loyalty During World War I, all French Catholics sided with the government, easing tensions between the state and the church.Not only did France restore diplomatic relations with the Pope, but it also ceased to enact laws against Catholicism.At the same time many French Catholics stopped rebelling against the Republic.

The Third Republic seemed firmly established and growing, and the revolutionary principles of 1789 finally succeeded in France.

(End of this chapter)