A Brief History of Humanity: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century

Chapter 38 Eastern Europe
The decline of the Ottoman Empire

The powerful Ottoman Empire was established by the Ottoman Turks in West Asia and Eastern Europe between 1300 and 1500.They belonged to Muslims in religion and firmly believed that it was a religious duty to conquer and rule all non-Muslims.They shook the whole of Europe with bloody wars, and brought all the peoples of the Balkans under their rule.

In the early nineteenth century, Greeks, Bulgarians, most Romanians, and nearly half of all Yugoslavs were ruled by the Turkish sultan, whose capital was Constantinople.Sultan's power also extended to Asia Minor, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunisia.

Weakness and Decline The Turkish government, always autocratic, had grown weaker and weaker in the 19th century.The autocratic sultan cared more about his many wives than about the government.Officials are all corrupt and forget their duties.All in all, the Turkish government in the 19th century was corrupt to the extreme.In this case, it was to be expected that every part of the empire was lost not to internal uprisings, but to external attacks.And so it is.

Internal uprisings During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Yugoslavs, Greeks, Romanians, and Bulgarians all gained freedom from Turkish rule.As a result, Turkey lost almost all of the Balkans.

Attacks from outside The internal uprisings of the Ottoman Empire owed some success to sympathy and help from abroad; but Britain, France, Russia, and other powerful powers sometimes took the opportunity to plunder Turkish territories while aiding the Greeks and other peoples in winning their freedom.For example, Turkey lost its African territory Tunisia to France, Tripoli to Italy, and Egypt to Britain.

Austria also annexed some Turkish territories.But Turkey's most aggressive enemy in Europe is Russia.If it is not forcibly stopped by other powers, Russia will continue to carve up Turkey and completely erase its name from the list of countries.This result, perhaps, was well deserved by Turkey; but her neighbors came to her aid, not because they liked her, but because they feared Russia, who did not want the important spoil of Constantinople for her.

Young Turks aroused a stronger sense of patriotism among some Turks shortly after.In the early 20th century, a secretive Young Turk party was formed with the goal of turning Turkey into a progressive democracy. In 1908 these ardent reformers seized power by revolutionary means.They formed a parliament, deposed the sultan, installed a more liberal man as king, and promulgated a constitution.But things soon changed, and the Young Turks cared more about nationalism than freedom.They were obsessed with "Turkizing" the non-Turkic races so that the empire would be completely Turkic, with the Turkish language enforced for all and those who refused to be Turk brutalized.

Failure and Disaster This kind of patriotism of the Young Turks is tragic.Not only could they prevent Bulgaria from becoming independent in 1908, but they also could not prevent Austria-Hungary from annexing the two Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the same year.They lost Tripoli to Italy in the Turkish-Italian War of 1911.They lost to the Balkan Union countries the following year and were forced to give up most of Turkey's European territories in 1913.

In addition, Arab uprisings broke out several times.Therefore, it is not surprising that the Young Turks are increasingly turning to Germany, the strongest military power in Europe, for help in order to reorganize the Turkish Empire.German officers were brought in to help improve the Turkish army.The most tyrannical Young Turks leaders have gradually softened.Until 1914, Turkey was preparing to restore its military prestige with the help of Germany.Germany, on the other hand, hopes to reap the benefits of its friendship with Turkey.

[-]. Southeast European countries
The Serbian Yugoslavs, a Slavic nation, are a Christian nation and speak languages ​​like Russian, Polish and some Slavic languages.When some Yugoslavs were massacred by Turkish soldiers, farmers in a province of Yugoslavia held weapons in hand, defeated the Turks, supported a local to become a grand duke (1817), and created a Yugoslav principality called Serbia.But Serbia is not yet fully independent.The Grand Duke was ruled by the Turkish Sultan, and Turkish guards were stationed in various Serbian towns.It was not until 1878 that Turkey was forced (mainly by Russia) to recognize Serbia's complete independence.A few years later, the Grand Duke of Serbia took the title of king.

Serbia's expansion From 1878 to 1912, Serbia was a very small kingdom, but in 1912, it was united with three other small kingdoms that had achieved independence at that time, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro, and joined Turkey fight.These four small kingdoms were very successful in the war, driving the Turks out of all of Macedonia, where the Turks had been quite brutal to the Christians.After the victory over the Turks, the small kingdoms squabbled over loot, and in 1913 a second war broke out.Serbia got more than its fair share from the war, nearly doubling its size.All Yugoslavs were freed from Turkish rule.

Eyes fixed on Austria But in 1913, the process of national independence of the Yugoslavs was far from complete.There are about 700 million people (accounting for more than half of all Yugoslavs), in the southwestern provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.Seizing these provinces from the Habsburg emperor seemed impossible for a country as small as Serbia.The national autonomy of the Yugoslavs will not go very far unless the Austro-Hungarian Empire is destroyed.

Greece in history The second Balkan nation to stand up against the Turks was the Greeks.Their desire for independence was aroused at the end of the eighteenth century, some by the ideas of the French Revolution, some by the writings of scholars who revived the pride and glory of ancient Greece.Greek patriots convened a national assembly in 18, promulgated the Declaration of Independence, drafted a constitution, and elected a president.With the help of Russia, France, and England, the Greeks were free.But the three great powers insisted that the new state should be a monarchy, and chose a young German prince to be king of Greece.This happened in 1821.

The Greeks did not like their German king, ousted him in 1862, and then chose the son of Queen Victoria of England as their king.The great powers intervened again and made a Dane king of Greece.But the Greeks were allowed to implement a constitution, which made their monarchy quite democratic, the most democratic kingdom at that time.

Venizelos and Greece In 1862, millions of Greeks were still under Turkish rule.But Greek patriots dreamed of a "greater Greece," seeing their small kingdom as part of a "greater Greece." In the early 20th century, a heroic and astute prime minister, Venizelos, made much of this dream a reality.His contribution to Greece was much like that of Cavour's work in Italy many years earlier.

Venizelos united Serbia and Bulgaria to declare war on Turkey in 1912, and then formed an alliance with Serbia, launched a second war against Bulgaria, and then acquired Greater Crete, several islands along the coast of Asia Minor, and the mainland Some of the territories on the continent, including a large part of Macedonia and Thrace.As a result of these war and diplomatic victories, more than 200 million Greeks joined the kingdom (1913).

Romania of the Romans The Romanians are the third Balkan nation to break away from Turkish rule.Romanians claim to be descendants of Roman colonists who settled in the area north of the Danube in ancient times.Today's Romanians may be mixed, but their language is very similar to Italian.

In the early nineteenth century, the Romanians found themselves divided into the following parts: (19) the most important part of their territory, namely Moldavia and Wallachia, was subject to the Turkish Sultan; , that is, Transylvania and Bukovina, which Austria annexed until 1; (2) the third part, Bessarabia, was occupied by Russia until 1918 recover.

The desire for independence In Moldavia and Wallachia, the desire for national autonomy was largely inspired by France.Romanian nobles often sent their children to study in Paris.When the French Revolution broke out in 1848, there was also an uprising in Romania, but it was unsuccessful. In 1861, Moldavia and Wallachia were united together, and Alexander John Cuza was made Grand Duke.Cuza declared that "the Romanian state has been established", but the full independence of the country was not recognized until 1878.

Grand Duke Cuza of the Kingdom of Romania tried to make Romania a second France.He created universities, abolished feudal taxes, gave land to farmers, and introduced the Napoleonic Code.Perhaps each of his reforms was too hasty, or perhaps something else.The nobles and politicians deposed him in 1866 and cordially invited Prince Charles of the Hohenzollern family, a relative of the King of Prussia, to become king.Charles (Karol in Romanian) ruled Romania for 50 years, under whose rule it became the most powerful and prosperous of all the Balkan states.

Romania had almost 1914 million people in 800, but there were more than 400 million people of the same ethnic group under the rule of Russia and Austria-Hungary.The cause of national autonomy for the Romanians is not yet complete.

Bulgaria Until 1850, Europeans had rarely heard of Bulgarians.Bulgarians are the name given to the people who live between the Danube and the Aegean Sea.They are considered to be Greeks because the Greek language is used in the local churches.But outside the church they speak a Slavic language.In the late 19th century, Bulgarians began to set up schools to teach the Slavic language.They also broke away from the Greek Orthodox Church and founded the independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church.They grow to desire independence.

It didn't take long for the Bulgarians to win the sympathy of people throughout Europe.They rebelled against the Turks in 1875, and the Turks killed tens of thousands of Bulgarian peasants in revenge.The massacre became one of the reasons why Russia attacked Turkey in 1877.As the "big brother" of the Balkan nations, Russia forced Turkey to grant autonomy to the Bulgarians under a Christian prince.However, due to British and Austro-Hungarian interference, this plan was rejected, and as a result, in 1878, Bulgaria was divided into three parts, one of which was still completely under Turkish rule, and the second part became a Christian province. A Turkish province under the rule of the Sultan, the third part was a near-independent principality paying tribute to the Sultan.

The Third Part of Freedom, the Principality of Bulgaria, adopted a democratic constitution and waited for an opportunity to tear up the 1878 treaty. In 1885, the people of the second section ousted their Turkish officials and merged with the principality.A little later, when the Young Turks revolution broke out in Turkey in 1908, the Grand Duke of Bulgaria announced that he would no longer pay tribute to the Sultan and would use the title of monarch of the Independent Kingdom of Bulgaria.

The Balkan War of 1912-1913 The New Kingdom hoped to liberate another third of the Bulgarians from Turkish rule, so it joined the Balkan War in 1912, formed an alliance with Greece and Serbia, and defeated Turkey people.However, as mentioned above, these allies disputed over the distribution of the conquered territories, and Bulgaria was too hasty in a second war in 1913, this time against its erstwhile allies Serbia and Greece. The two countries were again united with Turkey and Romania.

Bulgaria was literally crushed.The result was that it gave Romania a small piece of territory in the north (part of Dobroja); and in the south, part of the territory it would acquire in 1912 to Turkey; most of the rest was divided between Serbia and Greece occupied.In the two Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913, Bulgaria actually gained only 1 square miles of land.

The Bulgarians expressed bitterness and despair, since Serbia and Greece had won some provinces inhabited by the Bulgarian nation in Macedonia, at least so the Bulgarians themselves called it.

[-]. Nationalism in the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Like Turkey, Austria-Hungary was an empire that included many peoples.However, unlike Turkey, the strength of the Austro-Hungarian Empire could prevent the national independence movement, at least during the period from 1867 to 1914.

Compromise of 1867 The Hungarians (Magyars) showed a very strong spirit of national autonomy.During 1848-1849 they attempted to form an independent republic.Their plans were shattered by armed force, but force could not completely destroy the Magyars' love of freedom.But when Austria-Hungary fought Prussia in 1866, under the influence of a cunning politician, Dejak, the Hungarians did not rebel.So, in return for their loyalty, Emperor Francis Joseph agreed to the famous Compromise of 1867.According to this agreement, Hungary should belong to a separate kingdom, have its own constitution, parliament and cabinet, and enjoy complete governance rights over its own affairs.But the king of Hungary can only be the Emperor of Austria himself.

Dual Monarchy Thus, the Austrian Empire became the Austro-Hungarian "Dual Monarchy" in 1867; the common ruler became the "Emperor-King".Some matters, such as foreign relations, wars, and some financial affairs, were handled by joint Hungarian and Austrian ministers.These common ministers were responsible to a common parliament in which the Austrians spoke German and the Hungarians spoke their own Magyar language.This arrangement makes Hungarians feel that they are respected.

The Compromise of 1867 generally went well, although it was not entirely satisfactory.Discontent led the Hungarians to revolt at the end of World War I in 1918, declaring their complete independence.

Hungarian oppression While the Hungarians valued their rights with the utmost pride, they ruthlessly suppressed the rights of some very unfortunate peoples attached to them.In eastern Hungary, mainly in Transylvania, there are about 300 million Romanians who, like the Hungarians, are proud of their language and customs.In the southwest, between the Danube and the Adriatic, some 300 million Yugoslavs aspire to national independence.On the northern edge of the Hungarian plain, about 200 million Czechoslovaks lived, and their aspirations for national autonomy grew stronger.

All these peoples were treated as subordinate races by the proud Hungarians.In public schools and courts, only Hungarian is used.In fact, both Czechoslovaks and Romanians were excluded from elections and government positions.Anyone who has the guts to talk about independence will be thrown in jail.On one occasion, when someone begged for a more lenient treatment for the subordinate peoples, a prominent Hungarian said: "No, let us settle our problems with the sword."

In World War I, which took place in 1914, the sword really made the decision.

The other half of the other half of the dual monarchy, the Austrian Empire, fared better.Of course, although the 1000 million Germans in Austria only account for about 35% of the population, they still have the upper hand in the government.The central government is run by the emperor, cabinet ministers, and parliament. In the 19s, when this government was first established, it was a very liberal form of government.Over time, more democratic claims arose.

So, in 1907, a law was enacted granting all adult male citizens the right to elect members of the House of Representatives.The law also stipulates that all voters must use their voting rights.In spite of these reforms, Austria was always at odds with her subordinate nations.

Austria's subordinate peoples (1) Czechoslovaks are the most troublesome, living in the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia.They often reminded the government that Bohemia had been an independent kingdom before it came under Austrian rule.The result was a violent dispute.

(2) Galicia is the part of Poland occupied by Austria in the 18th century. There are 500 million Poles here, and the government has fewer difficulties.Poles are allowed to use their own language in schools and run their own local governments.But they have never forgotten that they hope that one day they can regain the freedom and unity of the nation.

(3) To the east of the Polish province of Galicia live 350 million Ukrainians (sometimes called Ruthenians) who speak the same language as the Ukrainians in southern Russia.These people hated the Poles who controlled the Galician government.The Austrian government in Vienna exploited this resentment to keep Galicia divided and weakened.

(4) Austria also ruled some local Italian nations.They mainly include Trento in the north of Venice, Trieste, an important seaport on the Adriatic Sea, and the Istrian peninsula between Trieste and Fiume.These places are regarded as unrecovered Italy by Italian patriots and expect to be recovered.However, Italy's territorial claims were weakened by the fact that many of the unrecovered Italian lands were actually Yugoslavs and some ethnic groups mixed with Italians.

Austria-Hungary's head of foreign policy, Francis Joseph, and his ministers were eager to expand the empire they had put together, so they created a large army.In 1878 sent an army to the Balkans and captured Bosnia and Herzegovina.That year, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and some powerful countries treated Turkey and Russia brutally.Since then, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been ruled by Austria-Hungary, although they remain technically part of the Turkish Empire.

This bold move made it imperative for Austria-Hungary to unite with powerful allies.It therefore entered into an alliance with Germany in 1879. Three years later, in 3, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy combined to form the famous Triple Alliance.

Force and Fear Austria-Hungary waited for a chance to snoop for many years.Finally, in 1908, when the Young Turks revolution broke out, Austria-Hungary immediately annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.But most of the 200 million people who were annexed were Yugoslavs, who did not want to be ruled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire.This annexation brought the total number of Yugoslavs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to 700 million.

At the same time, there are about 300 million Yugoslavs in Serbia in the south of Austria. They fear and hate the mighty Austro-Hungarian Empire, and hope that one day all Yugoslavs can be liberated and unified.

Serbia's expansion Based on these facts, it is easy to understand why Austria-Hungary regarded Serbia as a thorn in the empire's body.In 1912-1913, when Serbia gained additional territory from Turkey, the Austrians and the Hungarians were equally disturbed that the thorn had grown too large.Austria-Hungary secretly addressed Italy, to deal a blow to Serbia before it grew ambitious and powerful.

The problem of Yugoslavia was one of the causes of World War I and the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

[-]. Nationalism and autocracy in Russia

When democracy and freedom in Western Europe continued to move forward in the 19th century, Russia, a powerful country in the East, failed to keep up.The purpose of the tsar was not popular sovereignty, but the territorial expansion of a successful autocratic state.During the 18th and 19th centuries, Russia fought no fewer than 33 wars, many of them wars of conquest.

Peter the Great had realized his dream of opening windows on the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, but the ambitions of the tsars had not been satisfied.Between 1848 and 1914 they fought three bloody battles, in addition to many small ones.Of these three great wars, two were wars with Turkey: the Crimean War from 1854 to 1856 and the Russo-Turkish War from 1877 to 1878.

"Sick Man" Tsar Nicholas I suggested to Britain in 1853 that Britain should plunder Egypt and Crete from Turkey, while Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania should be liberated from Turkish rule and placed under Russian protection , Russia is about to occupy Constantinople.The Tsar said that the Ottoman Empire was a "sick man—a terminally ill patient" and that only the division of the sick man's property would be prudent.But the British thought differently.

After the Crimean War, the Tsar directly proposed tough conditions to the Sudan, which was rejected by the Sudan.Nikolai sent an army, and the Crimean War broke out.The outcome of the war was beyond the tsar's expectations.Great Britain and France helped Turkey out of envy of Russia.As mentioned above, the Kingdom of Sardinia united with Britain and France to win their friendship.The supply of the Russian army was very poor due to the lack of railways.The Tsar was forced to sign the humiliating treaty in Paris in 1856, by which he gained nothing and lost Bessarabia.

Tennyson made an incident of the Crimean War familiar in his poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade."There is another incident celebrated by the American poet Bayard Taylor in "Songs in the Camp".Florence Nightingale gained worldwide fame as a nurse during this war.

Russo-Turkish War In 1877, Tsar Alexander II, the defender of Balkan Christians, declared war on the Turks, who were killing tens of thousands of Bulgarians.The Russians won quickly.They advanced almost to the gates of Constantinople and ordered Turkey to sign a peace treaty on Russian terms.They are fairly close to Constantinople.Great Britain and Austria-Hungary intervened immediately, insisting that a conference of all powers revise the peace treaty.So an international conference was held in Berlin in 1878 and a new peace treaty was drafted.Russia received part of Armenia and part of Bessarabia.

After 1878 After 1878, Russia was still at peace with Turkey, but the Tsar still had his eye on Constantinople.He still poses as a friend and defender of the Balkan states, especially Yugoslavia.He wanted them to break free from Turkish rule and thus submit to Russian rule.

In 1914, a tsar felt that a long-held dream was about to come true.He is a Christian in the Balkans, but this time it is the defender of Yugoslavia with arms in hand.The long-coveted dome and minaret of the famous city on the Bosphorus seem to be within sight.

Russia in Asia Throughout the 19th century, when Russia was robbing Constantinople, its colonists continued to pour into Siberia, and troops were still conquests in Asia.Little by little, the vast steppes of Turkestan came under the rule of the Tsar's far-reaching regime.Russia brought northern Persia under its sphere of influence in 1907.Several plots of land along China's western and northern borders were boldly looted. Around the beginning of the 20th century, Russia extended its long arms to "Manchuria" and North Korea.But in this matter, besides the cold and the long distance, there is another obstacle, and that is Japan.Japan also wants "Manchuria" and North Korea.

Russo-Japanese War When Japan declared war in February 1904, the Russians thought success was within reach.A small foxhound seems to be barking at a big bear.Unfortunately, the sleeping bear was awakened by pain and terror.The Russian troops were repeatedly defeated and suffered huge losses.A large Russian fleet sailing around the Cape of Good Hope into the Far East was completely wiped out.

The cold and the distance posed obstacles for the bear, but most of all it was the astonishing incompetence of the Russian military system.

In order to curb the killings, President Roosevelt of the United States sincerely invites Russia to conduct peace talks with Japan.Their representatives met in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and a peace treaty was signed on September 1905, 9.This peace treaty was a heavy blow to arrogant Russia.All hopes of capturing Korea were lost, and southern "Manchuria" was handed over to Japan.

The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was the third major battle in which Russia participated because of the Tsar's plundering policy.

"Russification" The Russian Empire was a very large patchwork, and the military dictatorship was the thread that held the pieces together.The term tolerance is not well known.All are to be "Russified".The Russian language, the Russian Church, and Russian law were to be imposed on all subjects of the Tsar.Except for Russian nationalism, no nationalism dares to raise its head.

Poles, Finns, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, etc., have all been brutally suppressed in the relentless process of Russification.The catastrophe of the five million Jews living in Russia is even more tragic.They are not only different in race, but also in language, religion, and clothing.Frequently "persecuted", anti-Semitic riots are as bad as the massacre of Christians in Turkey.

Because of its irrationality and unfairness, nihilistic Russification aroused people's strong resentment against the tsarist system.The autocratic hegemony imposed everywhere also provoked confrontation among the Russians.Nihilism prevails.Nihilism is an extreme liberalism that is skeptical of everything and accepts no authority whatsoever.From nihilism to anarchism, and anarchists resort to violence, using bombs instead of books to overthrow the government and authority. In 1881, an anarchist bombed Tsar Alexander II.

The long dissatisfaction and pain of the revolution has been brewing the revolution.The Russian army was defeated by Japan in 1905, and an uprising against the tsar broke out in the country.The Tsar was terrified and made some nice promises.The parliament (Duma) elected by the people of all walks of life had high hopes at first and won the applause and cheers of the people, but the result was disappointing.In some respects, the situation is even worse than before.The autocratic system is still preserved.Russia's tsarist regime remained until World War I, before it was overthrown by the Revolution of 1917.

[-]. Hunger in Russia
Starvation in Russia was one of the main causes of revolutions and some extreme events.People not only want bread, but also land and freedom. They long to live as "human beings", and they really hope to truly enjoy life.

Serfdom Until 1861, more than half of the Russians were ravaged serfs.They live in thatched-roof huts that are dark, dirty and cold.Naturally, they did not have books. Not only could serfs not afford books, they could not read them either.They often only have a little food.Serfs had no land and could only cultivate a few small plots of land owned by nobles.And they have to be forced to work three or four days a week without pay on the land of these nobles.

Serfs also had no physical freedom.They were not allowed to leave the land without the lord's permission; and if the land was sold, he was sold as well as the land.Nobles can whip them, or send them to Siberia to punish them for minor offenses.Serfs could not get compensation, and serfs were forbidden by law to complain about their masters.

Liberation probably coincided with the liberation of black slaves in the United States. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II signed a bill to liberate serfs.This bill may surprise us, but the act is not entirely altruistic.As a Russian politician said: "It may be much better to liberate the serfs from above than to wait for the serfs to liberate themselves through resistance."

Disadvantages of emancipation Although the nobles were compensated for emancipating their serfs or abandoning some of the land cultivated by the serfs, the serfs still had no land of their own after emancipation.Every village where serfs lived in the past would have a piece of public land, which belonged to the collective property of the village.None of the serfs had the right to own their own land, and the small plots they were allowed to farm were only about half of what was needed.In addition, each village must pay in installments the money that the government has compensated the nobles.

Try something better Russian peasants gained one thing - personal freedom, they were no longer someone else's property. Soon after 1861, Alexander II announced reforms to the courts, making all equals before a fair trial, at least in theory.Except for crimes against the government, the court trials adopted the British jury system.Peasants also gained the right to vote for some magistrates.

Various reforms have given the Russian people a better taste, and they are looking forward to more reforms.Unfortunately, Tsar Alexander III, who came to the throne in 1881, felt that the people enjoyed too much freedom, so he reformed the electoral laws to give more control to the nobility while the common people had less voting rights.But the peasants still longed for land and freedom.

Industrial Development in Russia In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the dangers of absolutism and aristocracy in Russia increased because of the growth of a disaffected working class in the cities.Russia was undergoing an industrial revolution, and large numbers of workers were easily united and organized.

Russian Socialism In the 19s and 80s, workers worked long hours for little wages.So they soon grasped the theory of socialism as taught to them by the disciples of Marx.The Russian Social Democratic Party, created in 90, soon grew in the big cities.Its goal is to turn Russia into a democratic republic in which factories, mines, railways, banks, and land are the collective property of all the people.Some socialists are willing to reform slowly, while others want revolution to change everything at once.

While the Russian bourgeoisie longed for wealth and power while the lower classes in Russia, the middle class, like the middle class in England and France, advocated a free government and laws conducive to commerce.At the same time, many "intellectuals," professors, writers, and lecturers were preaching radical doctrines.

Waste paper The revolution of 1905 was mentioned above, and its promises sounded good, but the autocracy remained.Most of the tsar's promises became empty paper.Thousands of unarmed workers were shot dead one day when they gathered to petition in front of the Tsar's palace.It is no wonder that the revolution broke out immediately, and several revolutions broke out in Russia after that.

Tsar Nicholas II deserves credit for the world-wide action of the Hague Conference. In 1898 he advocated convening a conference of world powers to promote international peace.The conference was held in The Hague, Netherlands in May 1899.It was a great event in a great cause, and it took place not long after the Spanish-American War in 5.Perhaps the tsar had seen how bad the effects of war were before they started it.

(End of this chapter)