politics

Chapter 60 Volume (Z) Six (3)
A breed which assimilated all kinds of peoples, 1319b, was not easily sustained if it were not maintained by proper customs and laws, which not all cities practiced.The reasons for the destruction of this regime and various other regimes have been generally discussed in Volume 1311, Chapters 22-1313, 16a5-1278a26. . 1275 In establishing a form of government, the leaders of the democrats have always tried to strengthen the power of the populace by increasing their numbers as much as possible.Citizenship is not only granted to legal heirs; for non-liberal descendants whose parents are citizens only on the patrilineal or maternal line, they are also naturalized together; 35a10; again, [-]b[-]. .But this is just a strategy often used by the "heroes of the common people"[-] (demorog).This unrestricted increase of numbers should not be the proper course; the liberalization of citizenship is only so far as to enable the common people to outnumber the combined forces of the middle classes and nobles, beyond what is absolutely inappropriate.

The aristocrats felt uneasy and regretted the plebeian rule when all the stronger plebeian proportions would upset the balance of the polity—in Cyrene,15 this uneasiness even led to civil wars (riots) Burt's "Greek Political System" Volume II 2311 believes that this civil war is the riot in 34 BC recorded in "Theodorus" xiv401.At that time, the Cyreni civilian authorities killed [-] rich people, and the rest of the fugitive rich people formed a counterattack. Both sides suffered heavy casualties. .People tend to ignore small troubles, but once the scourge becomes so great, everyone will be shocked.In the construction of this most extreme civilian regime, there are some other measures, such as the various measures used by the Athens Cresceny to strengthen the civilian power, and the various policies adopted by the ancestors of the Cyreni civilian rule and business. According to the two measures mentioned about ordinance and religion, according to the original text, it is impossible to distinguish who is the policy of Cresceny and who is the ancestor of Cyreni, nor can it be said exactly whether the two places have adopted the same two measures.

, 20 are equally beneficial: the emerging (later) clans and tribes must make them depend on the old tribes to coexist; the unique oracles (sacrifices) of each tribe must be practiced in public and gradually merged or abolished and reduced by one state The complicated shrines in Gilbert's "Greek Political System" Volume II 230, mentioned that in 462 BC, after the death of Arcesilaus IV, Cyrene was transformed into a civilian government At that time, there is the possibility of introducing new families and new sects.Klessoni of Athens adapted the Fangshe, introduced a new race, and mixed it with the old race, as seen in "Herodotus" v 69, Aristotle's "Government of Athens" 21 and other books.In addition to some festivals dedicated to the common gods of various states, many clans of the Greeks had secret ghosts and gods, and sacrifices were generally held in the altars and temples of private clans or in the families of clan leaders.

In this section, Aristotle believes that various private rituals hinder the mixing of citizens of the whole state.However, Chapter 21 of "The Political System of Athens" mentions that Cresceny guaranteed that all ethnic groups still practice private sacrifices when adapting the community, which is not exactly consistent with what is said in this section. ; All in all, 25 to implement various methods for all citizens to break away from traditional beliefs and narrow relationships, and to mix with each other as much as possible.Moreover, some of the tactics adopted by tyrants are also suitable for extreme forms of popular government.We can cite some examples, such as: the indulgence of women and children, the indulgence of slaves see volume 13131 32b39-30. —If this indulgence does not exceed a certain stage, it is both expedient and beneficial to the matter.It is also an effective strategy to acquiesce to people's "acting according to their feelings and living according to their will"; [-] many people will support such a regime; self-denial is a state that is difficult for human beings to achieve, so most people prefer a life without discipline and restraint .

Chapter five
All those who wish to create this (ultra-democratic) form of government,35 and thus legislate for it, will later learn that their role is not merely to start a business, but their real intention should be to maintain the regime created so that it does not decline.Under any type of regime, any city-state can exist for two or three days, but it must be a system that can stand the test of the times before it can be called a regime.Therefore, legislators should carefully pay attention to the various reasons why various regimes are preserved and overthrown. "Constitutional regimes".Some types of common people and oligarchy in Volume 1319 and Volume 37 are not mentioned in Volume 1317.Therefore, some collationists suspect that Juan V is another separate special article, which was inserted into the fifth and sixth volumes by later editors.However, many chapters in this volume recall some chapters in volume 34 and 1318.The sentence here (7b1310) is consistent with the words in Chapter 1, 1316b36 and Chapter [-], [-]b[-]. Obviously, Juan [-] and Juan [-] should actually be the "previous part" of Juan [-]. Please refer to the notes to Juan [-], Chapter [-], [-]b[-] and Chapter [-], [-]b[-] of this volume. Note.

--This topic we have previously studied--they should endeavor to create a sufficiently durable basis according to these principles.The topic of this volume should be "establishment", but in this chapter Aristotle turns back to the topic of Volume 40.The preservation laws described in Volume 1320, in addition to the general-purpose methods, only talk about the long (monarchy) part of the special methods for various regimes. Therefore, Aristotle discusses the "establishment" of civilian city-states in this volume. (Among them, the extreme civilian form is the current popular political system), and there is also the problem of their "preservation". .For all destructive factors, 5 they should prevent in advance, and they must also make a whole custom for their own city-state, [-]ɑ that is, unwritten or written laws, so that they can be passed down to posterity.In this code, special attention must be paid to every means of preserving it.Those legislators, regardless of whether they are engaged in creating a civilian government or an oligarchic government, are very similar. They must believe that it is not a good policy to just want to take over and strengthen the forces that are beneficial to them as much as possible. It can be called a good policy only when the regime it creates has a long history. [-]Contemporary civilian heroes are keen to flatter the common people, and often rely on public courts to confiscate private property for public use'δημευσι ("confiscation") original stem from
'δημο

-("civilian"), the meaning of the word is "(to make private property) civilian", that is, to confiscate private property for public use.Because most of the jurors in the public courts of civilian city-states are civilians (poors), bills to confiscate the property of rich families are often proposed.For example, Athens law, originally for serious crimes should be sentenced to death or exile for life, or punished as slaves; and confiscation of property is often decided together with these serious crimes.However, when partisans covet the property of rich families, they often arbitrarily detect some vague but serious crimes such as endangering the city-state, detrimental to the people, or blasphemy, and instigate the court to make a verdict. See Volume 125 of Hermann's "Greek Stories" 121 and p. [-] of Thonissen's Penal Code of the Republic of Athens (Thonissen, Droit Pénal de la RepAth).

However, people who sincerely love their regime should correct this bad habit. On the contrary, they should make a rule that all fines and confiscated properties awarded by courts should be handed over to temples for festivals and festivals. It is not allowed to be turned into civilian public property or handed over to the treasury.In this way, the punishment remains the same, and likewise, the offender can remain vigilant, 10 and since the common people have no selfish motives that can be used as self-interest, they will not be eager to commit crimes.Political denunciations should also be reduced, and false accusers should be fined hugely to prevent people from hastily denouncing Athens. An example: if a political prosecution fails to obtain one-fifth of the votes of the jurors, not only the case cannot be established, but the original denunciation One must also be fined a thousand drahmas.In addition, it will also deprive them of the right to report in the future (see page 951 of Meyer and Schman's "Athens Judicial Procedures"). .Usually, such accusations are made against the noble classes, and the Populists are not denounced; but this cannot be regarded as a just government, and the policy that everyone should follow is to make all citizens loyal to their government and love their regime, 15 Even if it is not possible to make everyone loyal and loving, it must be guaranteed that no one will be enraged against the government.

Generally speaking, extreme populist regimes are implemented in populous city-states, and it is difficult for citizens of such city-states to attend the citizens' assembly if they do not have subsidies.If there were not sufficient reserves to pay this subsidy in advance, the burden would inevitably fall on the noble class. Therefore, the authorities used harsh courts to impose severe penalties or confiscate private property, and at the same time conducted property taxes and other methods to collect money. the amount required.In the past, these measures have caused much infighting and thus toppled many civilian regimes.It is also for this reason that the city-state's treasury is not sufficient, and the citizens' assembly is not suitable for frequent convening. The number of jurors in the public court is also large, and the court should be held as little as possible. Gilbert's "Greek Political System" English translation page 20 , saying that the Athenian public courts had to sit frequently, except on festivals and ill-fated days. .If the number of days of public courts can be limited, there will be the following two advantages: first,403 wealthy households no longer need to worry about paying huge expenses for attendance allowances-a concern that only poor citizens can afford. When receiving subsidies, the city-states where the rich do not have the same payment are particularly serious; secondly, the rich cannot afford to neglect their family property for a long time. Now that there are not many court hearings, it is not difficult to find time to attend , so that every case can get a fairer trial.Conversely, if the treasury is sufficient to pay allowances, 25 civilian heroes do not need to use public money to please the masses.

They are in the habit of distributing any surplus to the masses, and as soon as the masses receive this payment, they demand more distributions.Helping the poor in this way of charity is just like pouring water into the leak. Reich and Sinard's "Ancient Greek Proverbs" Volume 161 35: "Foolish squandering is like pouring water into the leak.".But a true democrat must take care that the masses of a state cannot be reduced to the abject poverty which leads to the defects of common government.Therefore, there should be some measures to ensure that the people can maintain a certain degree of prosperity. 1320 These plans should take care of all sections or classes, including the original well-to-do families and rich families; the proper way is to save the surplus as a large sum, and then use the bulk to help the poor.The ideal amount must be enough to allow every poor person to purchase a piece of arable land; if the savings are not sufficient, 1309b should also make it possible for the donated money to be used as a trader and start farming.If such relief cannot be given simultaneously to the poor of the whole country, then it may be given successively in installments according to tribes or other divisions.Moreover, rich families should still contribute their resources to the city-state to provide subsidies for the poor to participate in some indispensable citizen assemblies. Chapter 18 5a[-] and notes. .It was because of policies of this nature that the Carthaginian government was always loved by the people.

They often select some people from the common people and send them to the subordinate cities, so that these people can get rich there. .The broad-minded and well-meaning members of the aristocracy can also do their best to help the poor earn a living-each person can take care of a group of poor people, and the poor in this group can receive funds from him to engage in certain trades.As far as the poor are concerned, everyone can follow the example of the Tarranton people; in general, the rich houses there let the poor households use their own property. , so they can all win the favor of the common people. Refer to 1272a30-33. The Tarenton people's custom of helping everyone is due to their ancestral tradition of Spartan immigrants.

The relief business mentioned in 1320a36-b11, whether it is public or private, should enable the poor to stand on their own. It is not easy to find examples in ancient Greek books. Chapter 49 of "Athens Regime" once contained a special law on the daily payment of two Obles for the elderly and sick. However, these measures are mainly relief and lack positive significance. .Moreover, the Tarantons divided all administrative agencies into two categories, all personnel were elected, and the other category was all personnel were selected by lot.The civilians of the latter type of institutions could serve in rotation, while those elected deacons could still guarantee better governance and stable order.Similar effects can also be obtained if the personnel of each administrative agency are divided into two categories, one is elected and the other is appointed by lot. 15
Chapter Six
Here, we have explained how the civilian government should be established. Through these explanations, it is not difficult for us to deduce how the oligarchy should be established.By virtue of the opposite nature of the two regimes, we can design various oligarchy structures corresponding to various civilian regimes.The first, the best oligarchy, with a proper balance of power in its parts, corresponds, so to speak, to the first, best plebeian government,20 which is the "opposite nature" ( ) as regards polity, the best oligarchy should be the opposite of the worst plebeian, however the following follows to illustrate the two varieties of "best oligarchy" and (closely approaching a republic) "best plebeian" , in fact, they are not two complete "oppositions", but only two "corresponding" regimes.For the difference between the first (best) republic and the oligarchy, see Volume 1292, Chapter 39, 1297a2 and Chapter 6, 25b[-]-[-]. .This type of oligarchy should have asset registers with two standards, one high and one low.Citizens in the lower register can fill low-level offices, while the more important officials are limited to citizens in the higher register. [-] On the other hand, no matter who it is, as long as it has a certain amount of property, it can allow him to be naturalized and obtain certain political rights.In this way, the majority of the masses can take part in the government and gain power over those who have no political rights.When all new citizens are added to the books, it must be noted that they should belong to the better part (class) of the masses.

(End of this chapter)